The Iron Age 1940-06-20: Vol 45 Iss 25

JUNE 20, 1940 VOL. 145 NO. VAN DEVENTER President and Editor BAUR Vice-President and General Manager E. WRIGHT J. A. ROWAN) T. W. LIPPERT Managing Editor Editor Technical Editor R. E. MILLER F.J. WINTERS A. |. FINDLEY Machinery Edit Art Editor Editor Emeritus Associate Editors F. J. OLIVER W.A. PHAIR >. RICCIARE Washington Editors W. MOFFETT JAMES G. ELLIS Resident District Editors T. C. CAMPBELL OBERT G. BINGHAM Pittsburgh Chicag D. R. JAMES W.F. SHERMAN Cleveland Editorial Correspondents F.T. TURNER, JR. ROBERT G. McINTOS Buffalo Cincinnat FRAZAR CHARLES POST Boston San HUGH SHARP CLYDE W. ENNIS Milwaukee Birminghan SANDERSON ROY EDMONDS Toronto, Ontario St. Louis LEROY ALLISON Newark, Editorial Technical Articles Spotwelding Machine Settings The Strength Cast Iron and Steel .................. Portable Magnetic Crack Detector .................... Soft Soldering Monel, Nickel and Inconel .......... Junior Motors Demand Precise Manufacture .......... New Power Transmission Equipment ........ Feature Reports News and Market Reports News Industry Machine Tool Activity 104 April Finished Steel Output Non-Ferrous Metal Market 105 Personals and Obituaries Scrap Market and Prices 106 Metal Working Activity Construction Steel 108 Comparison Prices Iron and Steel Prices 110 Summary the Week Ferroalloys, Pig Iron Prices 115 The Industrial Pace Warehouse Prices 116 District Market Reports Sales Possibilities 118 Owned and Published CHILTON COMPANY Publication Office (Incorporated) Editorial and Executive Offices 239 West St., New York, N. Y., GRIFFITHS Fir Chilton Philadelphia, Pa. P rce l wis 7310 Wo w Ay D W. B. Robins \ Bide D. C. War P 0. 8 81, Hart Conn. JOS. S. HILDRETH F. 1595 P fic A L SEORGE H EVERIT TERHUNE Member, Audit Bureau rculations Member, Associated Business Papers BAU Indexed in the Industrial Arts Index. Put lished every Thursday. Subscription Price: United States and Possessions, Mexico, Cuba $6.00: Canada, Foreign, $12.00 year. Single copy, 25 cents. Annual Number $1.00 HARRY DUFFY U.S.A. OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS MUSSELMAN, esident Vice-President Vice-President Vice-President Vice-President Vice-President WILLIAM BARBER, Treasurer JOHN BLAIR MOFFETT, Secretary JULIAN CHASE, THOMAS L. KANE CHARLES HEALE “ e ; 4 Jey v 7 Reduced shop labor costs Elimination heat treating failures, costly testing and clerical expense —these are money-saving regularly reported manufacturers who standardize erson Certified Steels. Steel buyers know exactly what getting when they order from Ryerson. These uniform high quality steels are made close range specifications. are free from hard soft spots and can depended for uniform working and forming qualities. Spoilage, breakage, and irregularities are prac eliminated. special quality control plan Alloy Steels assures uniform heat treatment response. heats are selected and complete chemical and physical properties, and exact heat treating characteristics are sent with every order RYERSON PRODUCTS How Save Mone Include: Beams, Structurals, Channels, Angles, Tees, Zees, Hot Rolled Bars, Bands and Hoops, Floor Plate, Plates (over kinds), Sheets (over kinds), Alloy and Tool Steels, Heat Treated Alloy Steel, Cold Finished Shafting, Strip Steel, Flat Wire, Tubing, Boiler Tubes and Fittings, Welding Rod, Rivets, Bolts, Nuts, Concrete Reinforcing, Babbit Metal and Solder. rite for Stock List. Stee guide the heat treater securing dependable, uniform results. does not have test. takes chances. Spoilage and re-treating are eliminated and dependable job assured. Ryerson Certified Steels stocks are complete and di- versified. You can save time, trouble and money con- centrating all steel requirements with this one dependable source ‘supply. from the heaviest structural the smallest rivet—from mechanical tubing welding not have the current Ryerson Stock List will gladly send you copy. Joseph Ryerson Son, Plants at: Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Detroit, Cleve Buffalo, Boston, Philadelphia, Jersey City. Mechanical — ” Yi Hy “bY; Yfyy é YY Yj tht) Wj Yy JUNE 20, 1940 ESTABLISHED 1855 Plain atime national emergency, becomes the duty industry bend every effort toward the fulfilling the common need. Today, that need the defensive armament the States. There question the loyal response our industry that need. And mean its labor, its management and its capital. Our industries are alive their responsibilities. not know single company the metal-working industry that wants into the business making munitions; nor the same token, know single one that will not tackle its assigned job making munitions with enthusiasm and singleness purpose that will far transcend the tempo normal activities. Industry knows that will not profit from this emergency and does not want to. knows that, the contrary, will have pay the share the bill through greatly increased taxes whatever may earn future peace time years. And here again, include labor, manage- ment and capital, each these components industry will have foot his share the bill. Industry (and speaking one its principal sections, know that correctly interpreting all industry) prepared the limit” put into successful performance any emergency duty that laid before it. there are bottlenecks equipment, industry will abolish them. there are “fifth columnists” hinder progress, industry will eliminate them. there are men executive positions incapable rising the needs the times, industry will replace them with capable men with records for performance. much for industry and its cooperation with Government. Govern- ment can depend industry. Can industry depend Government? the major responsibility the Administration Washington make industry,—again the collective sense—feel that can. point number one. The Administration can have doubt the ability Knudsen Hillman the capability Ford 10,000 other industrialists. Can industry place the same confidence Madam Perkins, Secretary the Navy who wants give his job run for Congress, Secretary Commerce who has spent most his time sick leave? Secretary War who content merely draw pay- check? preparedness program, like war itself, calls for the best minds and hands the top administrative jobs Government. success has been due the fact that had program, put his most qualified men charge and stuck for years. These are plain and perhaps unpleasant facts, but they are the minds labor, management and capital today. Today time for the protection political friends. need the best have from top bottom. a : ae > ~ to Va 2) et ‘net j =, leading producer Structural Steel and Steel Sheet Piling, Inland position cooperate closely all de- sign, fabrication and construction details your projects. Our engineers will work with you from the very begin- ning the successful completion the finished job. INLAND STEEL South Dearborn Street, Chicago Sales Offices: Milwaukee, Detroit, St. Paul, St. Louis, Kansas City, Cincinnati Sheets Strip Tin Plate Bars Plates Floor Plates Structurals Piling Rails Track Accessories Reinforcing Bars C ; Effect potwelding Machine Settings Weld Strength HEN first spotwelding new job, the question arises: What should Some years ago, welders did not have automatic con- trols and the material being welded was mild steel, and before spotweld- ing was used structures, this ques- tion was answered the oper- ating the machine. Today, with spot- welding being used structures, the strength the weld important factor; therefore that same question answered competent welding engineer. There can work—the answer must correct. There are four that must made spotwelding started. These are: (1) Current strength. (2) Electrode pressure. (3) Time duration welding (4) Size and shape electrode tip. CURRENT current spotwelding machine measured thousands amperes. usually extends from 5000 50,000 amperes. The lower currents are used for light gage steel, and the higher currents for heavier gages steel and for metals having high conductivity, UNGER Welding Engineer, Pullman-Standard Car Co., Chicago such aluminum. The welding cur- rent used adjustable and set means tap changer the welding phase shift dial electronic con- trol (Fig. 2). The tap changer alters the turn ratio the welding trans- former, thereby changing the welding current. phase shift dial the electronic control varies the percen- tage time during each cycle alter- nating current that the power tubes are conducting current the welding transformer. The heat the weld varied. The ad- vantage the phase shift control that. whereas the tap changer gives only definite steps, the phase shift con- trol will give infinite settings from zero maximum. Best results are obtained using com- bination the two, the approximate setting being made with changer and the final adjustment means the phase shift control. mechanically operated machines. pressure varied the air and hydraulic machines adjusting the unit pressure applied the piston, which usually done means regulator the supply line. the mechanically operated machines, the electrode pressure adjusted vary- ing the initial compression the spring. The electrode pressure can varied between wider limits with the air hydraulic machines than with spring-operated machines. ING CURRENT controlled means electronic mechanical timer. The old-style foot-operated machine had arrangement for the control the length time the current was applied. was entirely left the judgment the operator and conse- quently varied. order obtain con- sistent and satisfactory results, essential that the time definitely tronic timer used control the dura- tion the welding current, and this type timer that gives the most consistent and satisfactory results. The length time for current application definite and the current always applied the same point the volt- age wave, thereby variable effect current transients welding heat. This type timing con- THE IRON AGE, June 20. 1940—27 : | 5 trol also permits use the phase heat control adjustment (Fig. 2). SIZE AND SHAPE ELECTRODE TIP: The size spot controlled the size and shape the electrode tip. Various sizes and shapes can used produce the desired results. Fig. shows typical electrode tip. or- der that the size tip may remain constant, hard copper alloy good conductivity used. The tips are ma- chined and changed frequently that they cannot mushroom excessively and upset the setting the machine re- ducing the current density the weld. Variations Each Setting VARIATION CURRENT STRENGTH: The effect current variation the strength the weld shown the curve Fig. This curve shows how the shearing strength the weld varies the current from zero the point where be- gins damage the steel. The curve hegins point which the value current that will produce enough heat raise the contacting surface the two sheets plastic temperature plus the heat that being con- duction and radiation. Portion the curve has very steep slope. The spot underneath the electrode reaches welding temperature simultaneously over the entire area. This causes sudden jump from weld all strong .weld. Very erratic results are obtained with cur- rent values from the curve. Slight variations electrical contact resistance between sheets and between electrodes and sheets will cause large the results this part the curve. From the strength increases the form parabola. The spot growing larger the contact surface the two sheets, exceeding the size the electrode tip. the area propor- tional the square the diameter, the strength the weld also increases the square. When point reached, several factors act decrease the strength. Shrink holes cracks are produced, and the spot weakened deep indentation. The portion be- tween and the welding range. The machine should set little be- low This will give the highest strength spot and will allow the elec- trodes mushroom without decreasing the current density below point The curve shown Fig. repre- sents conditions for sheet thickness 3/32 in. more. For 1/16 in. thick- ness less, the curve takes different shape, which shown Fig. and will noted that this case the 28—THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940 strength the spotweld increase materially with higher cur- rents. the heavier sheets the cur- rent has opportunity spread more because the greater travels through the sheet, thereby heating larger area. The pressure also distributed over larger area because the increased stiffness the heavier sheet, and therefore the spot can grow size the heat increased raising the the thinner sheets the current and pressure are more cause the sheet more formed, and the weld does not grow appreciably size the current increased. making setting for current essential have tensile testing machine available that standard shear tests can made the spot- welds. The shear test consists strips. shear sample shown The free ends the two strips are gripped the jaws the testing machine and the load required shear the specimen ascertained. The proper point for current setting between the two values, and curves Figs. and can de- testing machine and etch test. The etch test consists cutting cross- section through the weld, polishing and etching the penetration. penetration means that the setting near point the current variation curve. The results may very erratic falling ABOVE IG. |—Tap changer for adjusting weld- ing current. LEFT Phase shift control heat. current should increased move aluminum alloys. The penetration the spotweld should not extend the surface; resistance properties the weld will impaired. ELECTRODE shows typical curve for effect strength the weld with variable electrode pressures. With trode pressures (less than value the curve) weld all obtained. The heat developed melts the metal the contacting surfaces, and blown out magnetic force and the pressure the volatilized metal. Holes are formed the and the electrode tips. With pres- = 2 + | sures from very erratic results are obtained. The welds and trouble from sticking the elec- trode experienced. The pressure bring the area beneath the electrode tips into intimate contact. The value the electrode pressure required depends upon the material, thickness, and shape the piece being welded. strips are more easily brought into intimate contact than two angles. Electrode pressures above point are the stable operating range, and slight vari- ations pressure will such erratic results. point the maximum strength obtained. With pressures, electrical contact resistance the weld duced, correspondingly the heat and thereby the size the weld produced. The value the electrode pressure that should used the curve. This easily determined various pressures and judging the strength the spot produced. the ABOVE IG. 3—Electronic timer used con- trol the duration welding current. LEFT IG. 4—Typical electrode tip. creased, the various points shown the curve will noticed. Point located the size the spot. the electrode increased and the size and strength the spotwelds just begin decrease, point has been reached. No specific value for the proper electrode pressure specified thickness such value will vary with the conditions the setup, particularly with the shape the piece; however will usually within certain range. WELDING Time the weld defined the length time the welding current on. There are several factors consider when de- ciding what time use making weld: (1) Appearance weld. (2) Hardness weld. (3) Corrosion-resisting qualities. (4) Uniformity. (5) Buckling. will generally true that thin sheets the best appearing weld can made with short time, and heavy thicknesses longer times give the best appearance. With thin sheets the heat very well concentrated underneath the electrode, and longer times only produce deeper indentations and upset more the metal surround- ing the spotweld. heavier the current spreads out more reaches the junction between the two sheets. With too short timing, the heat concentrated underneath the electrode tip, which, because exces- sive heat this point, results the spitting metal and deep indenta- tions. The kind material being welded will largely determine the timing the weld. the material tends anneal, the case with the 18-8 stainless steel, mecessary use shorter times for the weld. the material tends harden due the weld, for example higher carbon steel, longer timing advisable. When corrosion problem, advisable use shorter times pre- vent carbide precipitation. Longer timing will tend give more uniformity, will shown later. When buckling warping vantage. VARIATION SIZE AND SHAPE factory results are maintained keep- ing the size and shape the electrode THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940—29 3 > : Shear strength, Current tip constant for each ting. With constant use, the electrode tip mushrooms, changing the tip area the current density. With reduced current density, the heat the weld reduced, which will event- ually result weld being made all. prevent this, trode tips are used and are changed definite intervals order maintain constant tip size and shape. Shear strength, Current ABOVE 6—Typical curve showing effect current vari- ation. For material in. thick. LEFT IG. 5—Typical curve showing effect current varia- tion. For material in. thick. one side produce very mini- mum surface indentation. Strength Welds Fig. shows the results ex- periment that was made determine size the tip adjusted ratio the thickness the metal being welded. The heavier the thick- ness, the larger the diameter elec- trode tip used. Experience has shown that the best shaped tip used dome tip. The dome tip has spherical surface, and the radius this spherical section adjusted suit the kind material being welded. The principal advantage the dome tip that concentrates the welding current, does not require accurate alinement flat surface tip, prevents excessive indentation, and will not mushroom very easily. vantages are esnecially great when the welded. When light materials are welded with low electrode pressures and low currents, flat tips are sometimes used 30—THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940 ABOVE IG. 7—Typical shear test speci- the timing and pressure uniformity. The problem consisted welding together piece and thicknesses low alloy high tensile steel and finding the set- ting that would give strength least 6000 Ib. shear and permit the largest variation current trode pressure. were trode pressure was varied from 600 1600 shear sample was made each electrode pressure for each the three timings. The current was men. RIGHT IG. 8—Typical curve showing ef- Shear strength fect pressure va- riation; all other settings constant. For low alloy steel 3/32 in. thick; cycles. Electrode pressure, iat varied from the minimum amount that would give weld, the highest set- ting possible without excessive inden- tation, shrink holes, cracks, ete. series samples five six dif- ferent current settings for each elec- trode pressure and timing combination was made. The values obtained test are plotted the chart shown Fig. Circles have been drawn the chart and the for each test. There separate charts for each the three timings. The figures within the circles denote, thousands pounds, the shearing strength obtained for each weld. Lines have been drawn the right hand side each the three charts indicate the current value above which’ the spotwelds would not shear located are Note: Number circle denotes strength spot thousand /b. Spots blocked area pulled 6000 more alloy stee/ RIGHT Shot blasted surface condi- Sand blasted tions. Mild stee/ Pickled Sand blasted => | BELOW WwW timing sure For low alloy high tensile steel, 3/32 in. thick. Elec- trode diameter, Amperes Surface conditions play very im- portant part the results obtained spotwelding. Fig. shows the large variation strength with three dif- ferent types surfaces when welded with the same machine settings. The CYCLES pendent upon the current used, the 45) electrical resistance the work be- tween the welding tips. large proportion the electrical resistance a 4 ac > I » ree > 600 56) the contact resistance between. the two more pieces being welded Amperes Amperes ogether, and this resistance varies with the surface conditions the work. This means that the welding heat (hence the strength the weld) tory because indentation, shaded area. examination also dependent upon surface con- cracks, The spotwelds that pulled 6000 Ib. more that were located the left the “too hot” line are this shaded area shows that the most ditions. The shorter the timing the weld, the greater will the effect surface conditions the strength the weld. reliable results are obtained with the higher electrode pressures the longer timing. Electrodeposit Thickness Tester PPLICATION the “Hull and test posit thickness zinc, cadmium, tin and copper described new tech- nical service manual issued the Pont company, The method rapid determination and Strausser, research asso ciate, American Soci- The Hull-Strausser particularly bled obtained complete. based the fact that coating attacked rate the reagent applied the tions the strength solution are avoided the use fresh reagent constant strength, constantly ap- plied the surface under test. The bulletin gives operation and the recommended solu- tions for best results. test termed applicable cadmium and zine electrodeposited coatings, and now included Federal specifications. was adopted recently for electro-tinned coatings, been found practical and rapid meth- determining deposit thickness the new Pont high speed copper. Principle the method and can employed with ordinary equipment, THE IRON AGE, June 20, hot author herein advances filament theory for steel and cast iron and presents empirical formula for deter- mining maximum possible tensile strength. The author's ideas, course, are very con- troversial, but still interesting —they may serve shock some metallurgists into some active thinking this par- ticular subject. various tests that combine indicate the mechanical char- acteristics steel are increasing number, although particular test may now and then fall disuse. Not long ago endurance tests were par- ticularly popular, but their glory was short lived. Later came the damping and creep tests, which still seem occupy very prominent position. doubt each these tests served serves useful purpose. has contributed the growth metal- them appear destined merely additional tools research, used now and then. But, the oldest all tests—that for the ultimate tensile strength—still first place. Not only the tensile test rapid and inexpensive, but the only test that produces precise physical value which cannot mis- understood. And connected some still obscure law the true co- hesion forces that operate metals. The tensile test capable yield- ing six figures directly measurable. Two proportionality limit and the “proof stress,” are used but rarely. Two others, the yield point and area reduction, are not particular- precise. The last two, the ultimate strength and the corresponding elonga- tion, are always used, and these the ultimate strength beyond doubt the most important. Besides, the value does not depend much upon the size the test bar. The European bar 100 mm. long and mm. diameter yields values which differ from the ones obtained the American bar less than normal deviation. view the accurate values ob- tained for the question often asked the value 32—THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940 CORSON Consulting Metallurgist, New York ° ultimate strength that must ex- pected for sample steel for which the composition and recent history are well known. most naturally, view the great practical importance steels that simply are hot rolled and air cooled, essential know their tensile strength precisely such state. Also interesting the question the maximum strength given steel after the due the moved. However, this latter question asked but rarely. Factors Influencing Strength The usual commercial scribed amount carbon, various but always small amounts phosphorus, silicon and manganese. The variations these three are not easy control, but essentially the limits are quite the analysis depends specifically upon the process used melting, whether acid basic. Doubtless these small amounts phosphorus, silicon and manganese either stay solid solution form inclusions. The latter influence most specifically the ductility given steel. The parts retained solid solu- tion, however, may have influence upon the tensile strength. Unfortu- nately, there still precise data available concerning this influence. course, might seem very easy produce number steels which only one element would vary, but the truth that would very dif- ficult. Laboratory tests made upon may have but little common with results open-hearth practice. Be- sides, the study the simultaneous ° influences four elements (carbon, phosphorus, silicon and manganese) would call for least 625 heats plus, all probability, the same number repeat and check-heats. course, the difficulties are not unsurmountable, and some day the not too far distant future thorough program such re- search may materialize. However, far, there comparatively little de- tailed evidence for the action the three minor elements. Various assumptions made this action during the past years have not always coincided, and cer- tain beliefs are definitely exaggerated. So, assumed quite frequently that strength steel uniformly 1000 per sq. in. Analogously, the effect silicon estimated variously from 150 340 per sq. in. strength in- crease per point. That these figures are greatly exag- gerated can deduced from the mag- nitude various effects when tional element dissolved copper some other metal. Silicon very potent strengthener for copper, and when added per cent raises the ultimate strength from 32,000 Ib. almost uniformly 55,000 Ib. per sq. in. This the average rate 115 lb. per sq. in. per point. Other elements entering into solid solution less effect per point. So, making all due allowances, should not expected that any element stay- ing solid solution the matrix steel might raise its strength over 250 Ib. per sq. in. per point. And, this would mean that carbon-free steel might possibly about 4000 Ib. per sq. in. stronger than pure iron. The matrix may have value 42,000 Ib. | | per sq. in., but probably does not reach such figure. Effects Carbon Carbon certainly has far stronger effect per point, because its state steel quite different. For, hard likely that even 0.01 per cent carbon will remain dissolved matrix low carbon steel. The question is, what this might be. Certain typical structural features are associated with the state car- troostite, pearlite, spheroid- ized carbide and The first es- sentially signifies simultaneous currence the highest hardness and brittleness. The others are associated with various levels strength, with troostite belonging the highest level. addition, there has never been any lack attempts introduce new structural terms like osmondite, troos- to-sorbite, sorbite, the structures mentioned, only sorbite and spheroidized carbide are mechanically uniform. Thus, might stated that such steel so-and-so strong because sorbitic. occupies separate fields except near points carbon has about per cent pearlite separate nests. fracture might easily pass through strictly ferritic field that the pres- ence pearlite would have but little hardening effect. the theory this author that acteristics and their still more beauti ful names are merely companions the different levels strength—not their causes. steel troostitic be- cause given strength tends possess well large number troostitic nodules—not vice versa. According this theory, every car bon alloy iron precipitation hard- Only that precipitate carbides which re- mains invisible accounts for the addi tional strength, and any state spheroidizing anneal for days. steel characterized the amount carbides still remaining the ultra- microscopic State. other words, what perceived looking upon something which may called troostite are merely the prod ucts destruction the true struc- ture steel. localized accumula- tion fine breakage troostite. rough breakage arranged well or- ganized heaps pearlite, But, the true structural frame the build- ing that remains intact still quite invisible. Particles Filaments? The first theory hardening explained the action ing due the presence large number key particles interfering with slip. That, course, sug- gestion that could not preemptorily excluded. However, must stated that there nothing nature that nified Quite different the situation assumed that the precipitated hard- ener—in the case propounded herein, filaments. Nature and human art present number anal- ogies this kind. Reinforced Concrete Example One such case can seen rein- forced concrete structures. Here, mixture cement with fine sand and water forms the matrix concrete. The heavy gravel used for ballast can compared pearlite, spheroidized carbide and various inclusions. But, the strength due essentially the wires and strips iron im- bedded the matrix. Suppose, steel visualized with filaments carbide times thinner than can discerned under micro- scope. Such diameter about 0.0000004 in. Suppose could magnified one million times. Then each filament will look like rod 0.4 in. thick—a frequent size reinforced concrete structures. the other hand, particle pearlite 0.0004 in. long and in. thick would look like slab stone in. long and in. thick. Certainly, the usual concrete might regarded model re- finement comparison. the ponds the Eastern States there may observed certain strange oval masses transparent jelly-like substance weighing Ib. and surrounding stem pickerel grass. Such masses result from the labor few generations tiny organism Pectinatella moss animalcule. Not enough cut into cubes which not change their shape under the force gravity. These masses are built 99.65 per cent water, 0.10 per cent mineral substance that was dissolved that water and only 0.25 per cent organic material. The parency the whole structure—about in. thick—indicates that the jelly- like mass built network fine fibers with all the water being carried the interstices. particles would form solid mass when added the amount 0.25 per cent water and structure films, matter how thin would leave the mass trans- parent is. Such are the examples from art and nature. Another argument for the filament structure can based the principle strain release. \ny under THE IRON AGE, June 20, 4 ek, 7 J - a2 | AOE: strain, this being minimum the moment formation from the molten state but cooling. And, the strain becomes too great the down and precipitates the material added. The larger the visible particle precipitated the more complete the re- lease from strain. That why air cooled steel will have its carbide the pearlitic state and sorbitic steel will carbide. But not with the ultramicro- scopic particle. Only certain sizes run- ning stages can accommodated with minimum strain. Others would produce strains stronger present solid solution. So, only few minimum sizes form under set conditions. And, once given minimum strain size reached one two directions one point, easier for the parti- cle grow one direction almost across the whole grain than for other particles the proper size form the proper places. filament struc- ture plate structure are most likely form. Plates would affect ductility, but filaments would strength. the Mechanism Anneal explain the softening hard- ened alloys (and steels) annealing, must assume that some particles get dissolved and others built up, until they are longer efficient keys be- tween slip-planes. For many reasons process this kind would hard the other hand filament needs only break smaller sections, each section coalescing, develop minimum surface. particularly clear that filaments are quite likely pearlitic struc- ture the coalescence stops short producing near-spherical particle. the opinion that the precipitation most likely result filaments the hardener. cer- tain cases the amount such filaments can controlled proper heat treat- ment. many others, the material strengths hot rolled and air cooled steels containing given amount carbon vary less than per cent. when cold rolled steels are annealed regular manner when certain 34—THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940 ingly uniform results. The Strength Formulae compute the results ex- pected, various investigators have of- fered their empirical formulae. Quite naturally the first tendency always find simple proportionality factor. Then was found that proportion- ality law refuses work and some- what more complicated formulae were offered which the carbon content enters the square power. Such are the parabolic formulae. Later has been found impor- tant account the formula for the well effects manganese, which the light the present theory amounts simply increased pres- ervation the carbide filaments. These formulae are composed number terms, one which carries the product the manganese and carbon contents. Nevertheless, all these formulae are strictly empirical. course all for- mulae must empirical, based upon the study practical data. How ever, empirical formulae may and may not have logical foundation, and the formulae now use.do not. Then again, formulae may applicable wide range narrow one—the present-day formulae are They fail completely before the carbon con- tent reaches 0.6 per cent. There is, however, mathematical expression which logical and has wide range application. present the basic idea, consider the following case. manufacturer possesses number well equipped units each requiring the labor organized team. This team working without disturbances has certain maximum efficiency. But, take two teams and put them one room and the efficiency each will fall. Put three and the ficiency will fall still more. However, higher total production will ob- tained from two though less efficient teams, three still less efficient teams, etc. For time the total production will continue increasing spite the lowered efficiency. Then will start This situation can presented the formula: Production Here the total number teams, corresponds the scale account- ing for the production, and the ef- ficiency one team. the same manner, molecule iron carbide can considered the team four workers The each team will drop when other teams are added, but the total production strength will con- point. The factors and vary from one drawn 400 deg. after being oil quenched will require factors different from those valid for water quenched troostitic steel for cold rolled and annealed stock. suffices, however, determine the factors for two well chosen samples carbon content but the same content (ap- proximately) and phosphorus and the same histo- ry, obtain formula which will correct within 3-5 per cent for any amount carbon present. The author has applied this principle large number published data cold rolled and annealed suming the strength the matrix 38,000 Ib. per sq. in., the additional strength has been computed represented the formula: per cent. Using this formula, the following set strength/carbon content data are obtained: 0.1 per cent, 56,800; 0.2 per cent, 65,650; per cent, 76,300; 0.4 per cent, 85,100; 0.5 per cent, 92,200; 0.6 per cent, 98,800; 0.7 per cent, 103,600; per cent, 107,200; 0.9 per cent, 109,100; 1.0 per cent, 111,000; 1.25 per cent, 112,700; 2.0 per cent, 104,000. can seen from these figures that normally annealed plain carbon steel will reach maximum 113,000 per sq. in. strength 1.25 per cent carbon, but the gain will quite im- material after the steel passes the tectoid point. fact worthwhile increase strength will take place be- yond 0.8 per cent the other hand, beyond 1.25 per cent carbon there will slow drop strength, and per cent carbon more than 104,000 Ib. in. could expected. Strength Gray Like steel, the usual constituents —carbides, pearlite, ferrite and different inclusions—will found gray iron. Now and then there will patches sorbite. Beyond all this visible picture there will the invisible structure reinforcing filaments carbides, and flakes graphite. The matrix cast iron J | and would weakening factors. Contrary many opinion, cast iron not likely porous unless very poor materials and bad technique are used. The specific gravity average cast iron will not differ from the figure computed the basis analytical data much per cent. So, view the presence the large weakening effects graphite, the weakening due porosity might eliminated being minor im- And, for cast steel devoid pect almost strength the same steel the rolled and annealed condition. portance. troubled the presence They may bad for ductility hot working characteristics, but they will hardly affect the strength more total volume does not beyond 1.5 per cent. itself the simple What the weakening etfect the their surface and thickness, and they may form various combinations and designs. combinations are most likely strike the eve, and there may the shapes that occur. The so-called rosettes might given atten tion. However, rosette not likely more than 0.03 in. across, about The will have area over 0.5000 Put fully one hundred rosettes every beside them, and the section strength the case 0.6 per cent rood 7 So, not the shape the vidental ensemble that will the stronger weaker according flake. Probability Problem Suppose the graphite flakes quite uniformly distributed and always standing perpendicularly the section the test bar. The loosest cast iron contains about cent graphite volume. Therefore, these will cut the active area not over per cent so. would mighty strot iron indeed. Now suppose the same flakes run only the parallel the Then will quite impossible escape the chance that cross-section. here there section will run ex- clusively through graphite. The cast ing will have strength whatsoever. But how will the flakes graphite cause too little work has been done the statistical studies structures. can said, however, that purely theoretical reasons the creases greatly when the average flake becomes too wide and too thin. short and thick flake strong iron, very “fine” (thin) flakes weak one. author not ready vet weakening might repre sented analogously the efficiency there has been produced the following empirical formula: 1330 400 41.5+GR Here the ratio the length the thickness the average flake graphite, while “GR” represents the analytical figure graphitic carbon. use the formula the strength the matrix must computed first from the content the combined carbon. Then, the strength the matrix should multiplied the value the above formula tain the maximum possible strength the cast iron. the formula then becomes valid for malleable Steel’s Future Prospects part his presidential address hefore the British Iron and Steel Institute, Mr. John Craig pointed out that while, “some the pioneers the steel industry showed great cour- sufficient optimism carry them through many they were not altogether possessed also free from pessimistic criticism. re- member Sir Hugh Bell telling that thian, had expressed the opinion that was folly seek the pig iron Britain when had already reached 4,000,000 tons per Sir Lowthian held the view that there never could market for increased output. recall how, when one predecessors anxious build some additional hearth furnaces early good friend the com- young man desiring make more steel, because the country could never periodic seem over the world from time time. Yet think can sately assumed that the best time the prophets declare that the country has too great capacity. would seem that those who have acted this policy the past have noth- ing regret. “It would difficult indeed say when country has sufficient steel for all its requirements. The general ad- vance cixilization seems move with increased output steel. tion civilization that that leave with you, fact remains that the have grown together, and does appear each step forward demands more steel, and that with the production quantities and improved qualities steel, crease takes place the standard living, and civilization marches on. The luxuries life are associated with steel, and while may that there are critics today who regret the the can-opener and life, there can denying the fact that the tin can providing the public with luxuries which, with- cut would quite imposible. feel confident that what has been cone during the past years more than foundation the present and future generation can build noble structure.” THE IRON AGE, June 20, 7 phe | Let’s Nurture the Machine —And Reduce Technological HERE the world all these machines go?” That the question that was asked the other day one the men our plant stood together and watched some large machines, just boxed, being shifted into truck. Not having time for lengthy reply, an- swered that thought those machines were going every part the world used raising peoples’ stand- ards living. Not long ago there was brought attention booklet the subject ably reputable and non-partisan organ- ization, and having circulation the general public. The purpose this organization was purely educational, and not for moment doubt the sincerity the author the booklet, but was somewhat disconcert- ing find that the conclusion drawn was that although machines had con- tributed very materially improving the standard living, the long run they probably did more harm than good because the number men they threw out work. This idea that machines destroy jobs not new one, nor con- fined authors educational pam- phlets. The idea becoming surpris- ingly widespread. newspapers, mag- azines, over the radio, and political gatherings common find refer- ences technological unemployment based upon the assumption that new and improved machinery throws many thousands men out work. How did this idea technological unemployment originate? all just fallacy? merely one many queer ideas that have popped re- cent years? Does arise people’s minds because the temporary mal- adjustment some jobs upon the in- stallation new machinery 36—THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940 The fact is, there nothing new about the idea that machines throw people out work. There nothing new about for the reason that ever since mankind first learned the use power there must have been repeated when machines threw some people out work for short time. Among some primitive peoples, was the custom for women draw the plow. Only within the last few CHARLES STILWELL President, Warner Swasey Co., Cleveland Mexico, have seen woman and pulling plow. presume that when that farmer hitches horse his plow that woman will lose her job. the early industrial period and even the United States when locomotives and other machines were first coming into use, there were actual riots over this question tech- nological unemployment. Workmen be- came frantic because they thought the new machines were going drive them out their jobs forever. about this question, can admitted that there some temporary technol- ogical unemployment today, but be- lieve after careful examination may conclude quite limited. For moment, suppose take three illus- Unemployment! trations the installation new and modern equipment familiar all us. Take first the continuous rolling mill for the same little booklet which referred moment ago, there appeared statement, remember correctly, about these words: steel rolling mills have thrown many thousands steel workers out em- ployment—they walk the streets, and there work for them.” And yet today the steel industry has reached one the highest employment peaks its entire history. are fair and examine the true facts the case, will probably found that the day the new con- tinuous mill starts operate, the men who formerly rolled strip steel the old hand mills stop working those mills. For time there may re- sult some unemployment men that particular mill. What really happens, however, that very shortly compe- tition demands that the next steel mill the valley also install continuous strip mill, and then third mill, and on, until competition sheet-strip, produced continuous mills, lowers the price, increases the use strip steel, and the combined creased operation the group mills will found that the total pay roll has been increased, rather than that men have been thrown out jobs. ° ° ° ‘The men remaining permanently out work the conclusion such process new mill installation will probably found very few, and even such men, the increased total operation the steel industry, will adjusted new jobs elsewhere. Machine Buying Necessary Second, consider machine tools. The buyer machine tools does not act upon the premise: “Let see, would buy five new machine tools could fire Machine tool buy- ing does not proceed that way. The manufacturer buys new machine tools when has have them for some reason. mind that machine tools are always bought for one two reasons: First, produce more goods, second, produce better goods. The manufac- turer’s idea buying machine tools that may employ men—not them. Remember this basic point business economics: manufacturer makes profit only when men are working, not when men are laid off. The objective productivity. wants enable his men get out more production; cannot accom- plish that firing men. Now, third, let take the case entirely new process, tremendous step technological de- velopment. refer the new con tinuous process making rayon. this new process the amount pro duction per individual employee has been tremendously increased. happened The new de- velopment was housed brand new plant Painesville, Ohio, and addi- tional employees, rather than were employed operate the plant. Here let call your attention another thing that takes place the installation new machine processes. The new rayon plant cost $11,500,000. Since more than per cent the cost production all such facilities the new rayon plant can traced back dollars paid wages and sal- aries, the very installation the new plant distributed hundreds new jobs and tremendous pay roll for people Painesville and elsewhere over period several years, amounting upwards $7,000,000. You must bear mind always, that exactly the process that going continuously all the capital goods industries. unemployment from which may have been suffering for several years, and from which have not yet emerged, caused large measure the fact that there in- t 5 4 § x 4 4 4 _ ‘4 a a ‘ af > say continuous mills have thrown thou- sands steel workers out employment. Yet, today employment the steel industry new investment going into new enterprises such have just de- country state confidence the minds investors, can reach the point where new processes can made take the place old ones 30, unemployment, far the heavy industries are concerned, will subject indicates that the permanent displacement men machines ac- counts for extremely minor part the unemployment the day, and that most the men actually before long find employ- high. ment elsewhere, particularly the ser- vice industries. People who inveigh against the chines merely because they causes unemployment seem en- tirely one-sided their viewpoint. They might just well start anti- water campaign, because water causes floods and drownings. People cannot live without water; the locations early civilizations were determined adequate water supply, and civiliza- tion progresses the use water, not doing away with it. Floods are terrible things, course, but are trving hard control them and lessen their effect. reduce the toll drownings, are teaching more peo- THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940—37 | ple swim. are trying teach people usé water intelligently, not find substitute for it. Likewise, seems me, must treat the increasing machines intelligently, the growing employment machine labor there de- velops some slight displacement men and loss jobs, proceed ligently cure that difficulty, and not condemn wholesale the machinery which has meant much our ever-increasing standards living. Machine Labor-Saving Think the machine first labor-saving device—labor-saving, not labor-destroying. labor-saving de- vice mean just that: device, machine, which saves human labor, invention which steel tricity can made the work which formerly had done human muscle. father used tell dreaded cradling down 20-acre field wheat and flailing out the wheat the barn floor, hand. Today, the use modern reapers and threshing machines have eliminated large part the complete physical exhaus- tion which not many years ago was the normal daily experience for many American people. prefer think the machine device which enables man multiply the amount his day’s work mak- ing possible for him turn out many hundreds times much work as, not many years ago, could hand. That man now works fewer hours and for his labor receives much higher pay. the average industrial workman this country today tried machine, the work produces up-to-date modern ma- chine, could work hr. day without stopping, and his daily output would still far below what with the help modern machine. Men can acquire wealth only they produce wealth. They produce wealth only they add the value the raw material they are working with. Therefore, because men create more wealth the use machines, and still greater wealth the use mod- ern machines, they have gradually, over period years, received more wealth terms higher pay and the modern devices and comforts which that pay will buy; and top all they have more hours leisure which get enjoyment and comfort out living. That what mean 38—THE IRON AGE, June 20, 1940 when say think the machine profitable employment otherwise. Now, for moment, let think the machine creator employ- ment. This quite the reverse the viewpoint people who like the machine destroys jobs. Machines create jobs because they cut costs and increase production. The underlying which con stantly energizes industry the direc- tion greater production competi- turer installs machines which will cut costs and thereby enable him offer better product lower price. Be- cause the lower price, more people can buy. This increases volume. With increased volume, greater mechaniza- tion becomes