The Iron Age 1933-10-12: Vol 132 Iss 15

MANAGEMENT OCTOBER 12, 1933 PROCESSES -:- NEWS For more than three decades Inland has had enviable reputation producer sheet steel. With the advent continuous mills was but natural that Inland would install the finest equipment Inland constructed entire new plant for pro- ducing hot and cold rolled sheet and strip steel all finishes—incorporating many new develop- ments—larger, more powerful, faster than any here- Experienced users sheet and strip steel have marvelled these facilities and these pro- ducts. You, too, can secure the advantages this Dearborn Street, Chicago, Illinois. nsing, rel Since ABLE SERVANT WEST Sheets Strip Tin Plate Rails Track Accessories Bars Billets OUR PART YEAR SERVICE THE METAL WOR ¥¢ KING INDUSTRY cide ear OCTOBER 12, 1933 Page Savings Made Robbing Machinery Adequate Maintenance Are Not Part Intelligent Coke Plant Economy. Part Allowed Depreciate Ultimate Worth- lessness Can Easily Jeopardize Investments Many Times Its Cost Related Equipment. Let Quote You the Repair Parts Necessary Keep Your Plant Sound Operating Condition. KOPPERS CONSTRUCTION COMPANY Pittsburgh, Pa. THI IRON publ Thurs day the AGE CO. Publication Office: $6.00 year Canada $8.50, Foreign $12.00. Vol. 132, No. 15. Cor. Chestnut 56th Sts., J | | THE IRON AGE October 12, 1933 7 — — — | Cleveland Chicago Editor Emeritus Washington Cincinnati CONTENTS Take Off the Ball Railroad Car Situation Involves Many Heat Treating Department for Wide Range OUR PART Steel Treaters Review Technical Railroad Freight Rates Finished Steel (Insert) Washington News September Ingot Production Construction and Equipment Buying THE IRON AGE PUBLISHING COMPANY I’. J. FRANK, President G. H. GRIFFITHS, Secretary Cc. 8. BAUR, General Advertising Manager PUBLICATION OFFICE: Corner Chestnut and 56th Sts., Philadelphia, Pa. EXECUTIVE OFFICES: 239 West 39th St., New York, Y., Member, Audit Bureau of Circulations ADVERTISING STAFF nder Member, Associated Business Papers Emerson Findley, 311 Union Bidg., Cleveland B. L. Herman, 675 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. | H. K. Hottenstein, 802 Otis Bldg., Chicago Published every.” Thursday. Subscription Price: Peirce Lewis, 7338 Woodward Ave., Detroit United States and Possessions, Mexico, Cuba, $6.00; Canada, $8.50, including duty; Foreign, $12.00 a year. Single Copy 25 Cents Cable Address, ‘‘Ironage, N. Y."’ Charles Lundberg, 45 Kent Rd., Upper Darby, Del. Co., Pa. Ober, 239 West 39th St., New York W. B. Robinson, 428 Park Bldg., Pittsburgh W. C. Sweetser, 239 West 39th St., New York D. C. Warren, P. O. Box 81, Hartford, Conn. SEVENTY-NINTH YEAR SERVICE THE METAL WORKING INDUSTRY j ! J. H. VAN DEVENTER G. L. LACHER Ww. W. MACON T. H. GERKEN R. E. MILLER elie: fe. Editor Managing Editor Consulting News Editor Machinery Editor ues . | | | | { | | : THE IRON ACE got our machining problem licke with gear steel” gear steel the generator. many you are looking for improved subject which Bethlehem metallur- users Bethlehem gear steel, are gists have devoted intensive effort. Gear Steel the development work position cite facts and figures stone left unturned that have carried out along your serious consideration. increase the number ‘‘gears has brought gratifying results. Steel Company, Bethlehem, Pa. HLEHEM ALLOY STEELS OCTOBER 12, 1933 Page | re > ce | 7 THE IRON AGE ... OCTOBER 12, 1933 ESTABLISHED 1855 Take Off the NDUSTRY cannot arise and walk until both its legs are pulled out the mud. Under the aegis NRA the consumer goods leg industry has been substantially liberated. But the capital goods leg, equally im- portant and much more deeply imbedded, has failed budge. normal times, from the standpoint em- ployment round numbers workers, each these two legs was approximately equal length and strength. During the depression, also from the employment standpoint, the capital goods leg industry sank into the mud about three times far did the consumer goods leg. The greater part, far, our remaining un- employment slack, which must taken be- fore recovery can accomplished, associated with the capital goods industries and its related dependent activities. That why fostering the buying railroad rails and equipment and lighting bonfire under the tail the public works mule. But the Administration also realizes that rail- roads and post offices and slum clearance and new roads will not suffice pull out the capital goods leg and that for the success NRA abso- lutely necessary that private enterprise shall resume its normal equipment replacement pro- this end the Recovery Administration broadening its campaign stimulate buying include urging the purchase capital equip- ment goods. While this gratifying those who believe indicates the laying the ghost implied improved equipment thought have been favored certain prominent Admin- Vol. 132, No. Ball and Chain istration members, not likely effective for the following simple reasons: great bulk new capital equipment goods must financed through the sale new stocks long term securities. Industry’s ready money needed for other purposes, such financing higher wages under codes. Selling issuing new stocks long term securities has been effectually prevented the passage the Securities Act was its purpose protecting investors from fraud deception, the terms this act are broad and stringent and subject investment bank- ers, well the officials, directors, accountants and engineers issuing companies such legal hazards for acts beyond their own control absolutely bar the door against the much needed flow new long term money. NTIL this Securities Act properly attempts stimulate the private buying capital equipment goods any adequate measure will futile. may convince every respon- sible industrial executive that his duty buy new equipment and that the purchase will profitable and patriotic. may soften the hearts our bankers. may even develop public demand for investment securities. But long the shadow endless litigation over- hangs those engaging the search for new long term money, will not sought nor will capital goods bought except through Government financing. All the public and private financial ele- phants America pulling together are not strong enough free industry’s capital equip- ment leg from the mud depression until Con- gress cuts from the ball and chain which applied the form the Securities Act 1933. ! var 7 | = j 4 | € 4 ‘ ook 2 | ire 1 ] Railroad Car Situation Involves Man dent Roosevelt that plan fi- nance new railroad rolling stock out emergency public work funds being considered has led much con- jecture regarding the amount and character equipment that will bought. regards locomotives the prevailing opinion that soon the roads have enough traffic utilize all their modern motive power, orders will forthcoming for additional lo- comotives the latest and most effi- cient type, because such units will show large savings they can used capacity. Expenditures for freight cars usually exceed those for locomotives, and normally amount over $200,000,000 annually. cussion the prospects for the purchase freight cars the im- mediate future brings out many di- vergent opinions. The suggestion that the Federal Coordinator Trans- portation may arrange for the pur- chase cars leased the rail- roads implies that the individual roads may not desire buy this time. The situation whole made uncer- tain numerous disturbing factors which have not affected the freight car market heretofore. Their effects will felt the railroads and per- haps greater degree manufac- turers whose products are used the railroad car industry. Any attempt forecast the amount freight car purchases that may expected the immediate future from statistical standpoint seems futile. present the weekly carloadings are only about per cent the maxi- mum that the railroads moved 1929. Yet the surplus freight cars decreasing considerably. Further- more nearly per cent all freight cars are bad order and 11.2 per cent 229,000 require heavy repairs. The railroads will need place large orders for material bring the per- centage bad order cars down the normal about per cent. Many the cars requiring heavy repairs may scrapped and replaced with new equipment. recent announcement Presi- Volume Traffic and Number Cars There definite correlation be- tween the volume freight traffic and the number cars which the railroads require. For example, the year maximum traffic, 1929, the net ton miles exceeded the wartime peak 1918 per cent. The capacity freight cars the latter year was per cent greater but the 12—-The Age, October 12, 1933 aa & goods industries through rail- way rehabilitation one the major present movements the recovery program. The initial step now being taken the form gigantic steel rail program under Government aegis. But beyond the rails, upon them, are large perhaps larger opportunities for reemployment through the rehabilitation mo- tive power and rolling stock. Un- doubtedly this will the second step. with the possibilities in- volved this second step that Mr. Stuebing deals this article. number was less 48,000 about per cent. Yet the period from 1918 1929 domestic orders for freight cars totaled over one million cars. Again, the traffic 1929 was less than one per cent more than that 1926. The number revenue cars decreased 71,000 during that period, yet domestic orders 1927, 1928 and 1929 totaled 234,000 cars. Under pres- ent conditions with traffic increasing varying amounts different terri- tories, and with car service rules re- quiring home-routing cars, statis- tics for the country whole are likely misleading because cer- tain roads may need additional equip- ment even though there large surplus regards certain types equipment certain sections. Re- ports have been heard recently that several roads had intended buy freight cars but their purchases have been postponed because the possi- bility that all freight equipment might pooled. While many railroad offi- cers admit that pooling freight cars desirable from the operating standpoint, their opinion almost pooling bring about low standard main- tenance, and that this disadvantage outweighs the possible savings op- eration. Although there much difference opinion among railroad men the amount freight equipment that may required, there even great- divergence the type cars that should bought. There are three major problems involved the de- sign and construction freight cars that the railroads are attempting solve: the efficient and economical handling freight, the reduc- tion the empty weight the car, and the elimination corrosion. Any one all these factors may the near future result changes the form and size cars and the materials which they are constructed. Railroads Spurred Motor Truck L.C.L. the handling freight the railroads are faced with the necessity improving their service and reduc- ing costs meet the competition highway trucks. The number cars freight handled 1930 was greater than 1921, but the total tonnage was about per cent less and the tonnage per car was per cent less. 1931 per cent the freight car loadings freight, with average load about 4700 lb. other words per cent the car loads made only 2.5 per cent the freight tonnage and the dead weight the car av- eraged about nine times the weight the lading. Under present oper- ating methods freight scarce- remunerative, and the railroads have difficulty competing with mo- tor trucks. Numerous changes equipment and methods have been proposed improve the efficiency service and reduce the cost. Some road men advocate the use light- weight cars, small capacity, but standard construction. lieve that small four wheel car without trucks would practical and more economical. Such light cars could not withstand the severe im- pacts heavy cars ordinary freight service and would therefore handled special trains high speed. The container car, with movable sections which can ried highway trucks, has many ad- herents, because adapted for ral sat wh ing pai im] tec car rat sta cal rat eig cas tai dif th: lor —" th STUEBING Conflicting Forces Affect Immediate Purchases; Types Cars and Materials store-door delivery. Probably all the types mentioned will tried the railroads and whichever proves most should widely adopted. Rust the Big Depreciation Factor Rapid deterioration due rusting undesirable feature steel cars which the railroads have been striv- ing overcome. Analysis car re- pair expenditures shows that rust and decay are responsible for per cent the total cost, more than one hundred million dollars year. Some improvements have been made pro- tective coatings and freight car sheets are generally made those types carbon steel which show relatively low rates corrosion. Furthermore the standard freight car maintenance recent years has been the highest the history the railroads, cannot said that cars have deterio- rated due neglect. spite these favorable factors many cars only eight ten years old are found such bad condition that the entire body should replaced, and some cases the cars are not considered worth repairing. Excessive repairs and rapid depreciation, both due corrosion, result very high costs maintenance for freight cars for cer- tain classes service. The problems involved reducing the weight freight cars are made difficult the operating requirements that must fulfilled. Any car that placed unrestricted service with existing freight cars, hauled long trains and switched rapidly, terminals, must have “backbone” and draft members nearly equal present standards, otherwise can- not withstand shocks service. The lighter car must not cost much more maintain and its useful life must not much less than that the standard car, the operating Savings will offset increased costs for repairs and depreciation. car smaller capacity than the pres- ent standard would suited for shipments, but the capacity de- May Change Railroading creased very much the car would not adapted for some bulk shipments and the ratio empty mileage loaded mileage would become greater, thereby increasing operating costs. Weight Decrease Means Cost Increase little opportunity for re- ducing the weight freight cars without increasing maintenance costs shortening the life the equip- ment unless the first cost increased. Therefore analyzing the possibilities effecting economies changes know how much can saved reduction weight. This amount will vary widely for different types equipment and different rail- roads. will greatest where large proportion the car loading the maximum capacity the car and where the ratio loaded empty car mileage high, particu- larly roads which have large proportion their freight movement full tonnage trains and which also have high costs per train mile per ton mile. The problem involves many variables and some data not now available would required for accurate solution. For the United States whole, the average saving that would have been effected re- duction one ton the weight each freight car under the conditions traffic and costs which existed 1930 about $18. Un- der the most favorable conditions this might increase about $50 but for some types cars certain roads the saving might little $5. The many men the railroad and car building industries who have been trying determine what types cars would most satisfactorily meet the changing requirements freight service have come many different conclusions. Anyone would rash who would attempt predict definite- what changes will made de- sign and construction. Whether the type and size freight cars will change radically seems very uncer- tain. materials, recent devel- opments suggest that the era which cars were made almost entire- rolled carbon steel plates and shapes coming end. There are three materials which may re- place rolled carbon steel because they would decrease corrosion and afford opportunity for meeting strength re- quirements with lighter structure. Possible Changes Design and Construction One among number possible changes freight car construction lies the increased use cast steel. Some ore cars and hopper cars have already been built with centersills and hoppers single casting. The sub- stitution castings for built structures rolled sections and plates results moderate decrease weight and reduction the rate corrosion. The first cost should not much greater than that the ordinary construction. produced quantities, locomotive bed castings combining frames and cylinders have proved very satisfactory, consequently the railroads are likely receptive proposals for the extension sim- ilar construction freight cars. The use rolled sections heat- treated aluminum reduce weight and eliminate corrosion now receiv- ing considerable attention. view the fact that the price freight cars recent years has been about 4.6 cents per pound, the price alu- minum might seem prohibitive. How- ever because relatively great reduction weight that can effected and the possible resultant (Concluded Page 68) The Iron Age, October 12, 1933—13 nain- Op- rence that three educ- car, Any cars they ssity less per only nage ment ight- be- Heat and Carburizing National Acme heat treating work involving wide range operations various methods for wide va- riety production work, including hardening high speed steel, com- bined the National Acme Co., Cleveland, one heat treating de- partment under recent rearrange- ment its heat treating facilities. that connection some new furnace equipment was installed. The present facilities include electric and gas fired furnaces, lead pots, and salt and cyanide furnaces. The company formerly had heat treating department for its Product Division and second for tool hard- ening. About months ago these two departments were merged the heat treating department for products and after the removal the com- pany’s automatic screw machine plant Cleveland from Windsor, Vt., last March, the Windsor heat treating equipment was added the depart- PRENTISS treating its machinery parts, its other manufactured products, and its factory cutting tools, and heat treating con- tract for outside companies, in- cluding carburizing facilities, are now all merged single depart- ment the National Acme Co., Cleveland, with metallurgical and chemical laboratories the center the department. Features the plant include the conver- sion fuel-fired furnace into electric one, using stainless iron electrode, electric-fur- nace natural-gas carburizing equip- ment. ant ment and other apparatus stalled for the heat treatment high speed steel collets and all parts used the manufacture automatic ma- chines that require heat treating. All the newer furnaces are provided with automatic temperature control. Lead pots are controlled two pyrometers, one for the heating chamber and one for the bath. Three Grades Hardness for the Collet Methods for heat treating collets and collet pushers are unusual in- terest because the operations which the pieces are subjected. Hard- ness three grades required for the collet, one for the head, less hard- ness for the shank and soft steel threaded end that requires treat- ment produce hardness. The push- ers usually are given the same treat- ments. This heat treating done two requiring three degrees hardness are treated two lead pots the right, one for preheating and the other for hardening and then given tempering treatments the Homo furnace the left. 14—The Iron Age, October 12, 1933 — e ‘ | are IGH-SPEED tools are also hardened Lavite furnace that has been con- verted from fired unit elec- trically nace. Work pre- heated and drawn Homo furnace. electrically heated lead pots supplied the American Electric Furnace Co., one for preheating and the other for hardening and low heat Homo fur- nace for drawing. The head the collet heavier than the body shank, being both thicker and larger diameter. Were the collets com- pletely submerged the hardening ART the high- speed tools are hardened artifi- cial atmosphere two electric furnaces, one preheating fur- nace and the second high temperature furnace. pot without any preheating the shank would become overheated the time the heavier end had been brought hardening temperature. Preheating also permits quicker heating the heavier end section when the collet submerged the hardening bath. The collet lowered the pre- heating bath being placed suspended counterweighted rack. Af- ter the preheating the head and shank are heated high-temperature pot. During this operation the piece held with tongs and the lower portion, which includes the head and shank, submerged the bath, being neces- sary keep the threaded end soft and free from distortion. After harden- The Iron Age, October 12, 1933—15 for ard- steel ush- reat- q ; q ing the collet given three tempering treatments the Homo furnace and lead pot provide the desired hard- ness the head and spring temper the shank. Rockwell tests are made assure proper hardness. Two Methods Hardening Cutting Tools Two methods are used for hard- ening high speed steel forming tools, milling tools, taps, chasers, trimming dies and the like. Two curtain type electric furnaces, built Hayes, Inc., recently were installed for hard- ening high speed tools. The other method hardening salt bath the Lavite process developed the Bellis Heat Treating Co., the same name being applied the furnace and type salts used. the curtain type furnace air gas front the furnace chamber, thus excluding oxygen and controlling the atmosphere within the heating Iron Age, October 12, 1933 chamber and preventing scaling and decarburization. One the curtain type furnaces used for preheating, the heating period depending the work. The second furnace high temperature hardening furnace which the tools are hardéned, the time depending the nature the piece. Artificial atmosphere produced combustion chamber and the mix- ture regulated valves the side the furnace. the preheating furnace atmosphere produced which slightly reducing. the high temperature furnace the atmosphere per cent carbon monoxide. Directly front the hearth oil quenching tank which the tools are quenched being taken from the furnace. The Lavite furnace, formerly fuel fired, has been converted into elec- tric furnace with rather novel way heating the molten Lavite solution used the bath. electrode, which CONOMIES have been effected and the product has been improved the sub- stitution electric carburizing furnace for pack type gas fired furnaces. Heat from the charge used preheat the next charge placing the retort leaving the furnace one two connected pits, the other pit containing the basket with new charge which absorbs the heat from the retort. diameter, extends down into the in. diameter in. deep pot within in. the bottom and the pot serves the cathode. The resistance builds the heat the bath the required temperature. The tools are first preheated min. Homo furnace, the time depending the size the work. Then they the first Lavite bath for further preheating and re- main the bath from min. They then high temperature bath where they are hardened. The work kept this furnace for one- half the time that the Lavite preheating furnace. variation the predetermined heating time either the preheating high temper- ature bath allowed. electric clock rings bell signal for the operator remove the tools from the bath. After leaving the high temper- ature bath the tools are quenched third Lavite bath. They remain this bath until their temperature reduced that the bath and are then quenched oil. The tools after quenching are drawn Homo fur- nace, The work handled and out the baths being strung wires low carbon content. Current for the Lavite furnace stepped down from volts. amperage maintained for pre- heating and for the high heat. Uniform hardening and clean work are produced the Lavite process. With the work submerged the bath not attacked the atmosphere and decarburization and oxidation are a avoided. The use this process found particularly advantageous hardening such tools thread chasers having very fine teeth. Comparing the two methods hardening high speed tools the company finds that the Lavite process has the disadvantage being more expensive, particularly when production low. Based the results its experience with the two methods hardening high speed steel the company confining the use the Lavite process large produc- tion and using the Hayes curtain type furnaces for small production. Treating Machinery Parts Adjoining the curtain type furnaces are three furnaces for heat treating machinery parts and small special work. Two are gas fired and one Hevi-Duty electric furnace. Ma- chinery parts and high speed tools and other work that requires drawing after hardening are drawn four Homo furnaces. Most gears are hardened salt bath which may either neutral slightly carburizing. Gears S.A.E. 3115 steel are hardened weak cya- nide after carburizing and then drawn required hardness. Gears S.A.E. 4150 steel are hardened salt bath and finished machined after drawing. Gears are quenched either oil water, depending the degree hardness required. Small work such cap screws and some nuts are hard- ened battery cyanide pots. Natural Gas for Carburizing Carburizing for the most part done pit type electric carburizing furnace kw. capacity built the Hevi-Duty Electric Co. feature the operation this furnace that natural gas recently has been substituted for the special oil that provided medium for creating the required artificial atmosphere, the gas being found much more economical. After the treatment both the retort and the basket work are raised from the furnace pit and placed one two adjoining cooling pits. the side each cooling pit nected through open space smaller preheating pit which sufficient size hold the basket which the work loaded the retort. Heat from the retort the cooling pit absorbed the parts the basket the preheating pit. Two retorts are provided for the one fur- nace, one being the cooling pit while the other the furnace. The furnace served overhead elec- crane. While the furnace charge being brought temperature the car- burizing medium not used. soon the carburizing temperature reached the gas turned and car- burizing starts. The content the case controlled the rate the flow gas diffusion the car- bon the case near the end the carburizing cycle reducing the gas flow. found possible get case with carbon content 0.90 per cent and even 1.20 per cent desired. Control the depth pene- tration important and this kept within limits 0.015 in. ia This method carburizing found have various advantages over the pack method, including more uniform work, closer control the case depth, type case and also economies production. Formerly the plant used eight pack type gas fired carburizing furnaces but the installation the electric carburizing furnace has per- mitted the discontinuance five these furnaces. Only one-half one workman’s time required operate the electric furnace. Hardening Screws and Bolts Equipment for hardening cap and set screws and bolts arranged for continuous production and for the ef- ficient handling the work straight line through the various oper- ations. This consists two dupli- cate units located side side. The first step hardening one two American Gas Co. continuous auto- matic gas fired tilting type rotary furnaces, ft. long and in. diameter with pyrometrie control, thermocouples being located the center and discharge ends. bucket filled the operator the loading end hoisted motor operated ca- ble the loading position where the contents 100 Ib. are dumped into the furnace chamber, which spiral drum. The furnace operated variable speed, the time work remaining the chamber depending the class work. Cap screws usually are kept the furnace min. Work discharged from the fur- nace through chute prevent ex- posure the air into quenching tanks which oil water used. The cooling medium kept cool being circulated through water cooled pipes. endless belt conveyor carries the (Concluded page 74) department for continuous hardening cap and set screws. The work routed straight line going progressively through the two rotary tilting furnaces the left, quenching tank, drawing furnace, another quenching operation and then dumping jig, which empties the basket work into shop pans. The Iron Age, October 12, 1933—17 ead} 2S n. faults which plague the use electric power the industrial operator who buys his energy from station are factors which have resulted mainly from careless plan- ning, haphazard growth, both to- gether. the most grievous economic High demand comes from the un- organized piling many and varied current requirements the point where, irregular intervals, excessive peak loads are developed, creating momentary needs for energy out all proportion any normal average demand. Low power fac- tor the result unbalanced use induction motors principally, but tifically developed layout wiring, motor connections, transformers, con- trol equipment and induction appara- tus general, such nature that the “wattless” current connected the supply lines bears unreason- able proportion the current that does the real work. both cases the central station must stand ready all times de- liver much larger percentage electric power than actually con- verted into work the industrial plant. Thus the real usable gener- ative capacity the utility large extent tied unproductively and when central station has contracted for the sale all its avail- able generative capacity, still the unfortunate position not being able see that total capacity com- pletely utilized. because this fact that majority the central stations are now enforcing most vigorously the rights they have acquired making customers pay “demand” rates ad- dition their bills for power con- sumed the one case, and the other penalizing those customers who operate under low power factor conditions. During the past three years, when industrial energy con- sumption was low ebb, many util- ities were lax enforcing these con- sumer penalties; but with electric power famine near, they are once more using them rod stimulate consumer cooperation. For, with surplus capacity sight, the correction high demand 18—The Iron Age, October 12, 1933 FRANCIS JURASCHEK and low power factor conditions will inevitably the logical means whereby present customers may se- cure more power for themselves, and future customers given the oppor- tunity getting the power they will need operate plants. fact, the need for additional power develops, not only will the utilities endeavor every means possible increase the present penalties force more even distribution output, but may even that legislation will enacted that will require every power consumer correct his shortcomings under pain being refused any cur- rent all. The contingency will acute this winter. Public utility representatives are already taking stock the condi- tions their territories, searching surveys conditions operation their customer’s plants. The screws may applied any time. That one reason for careful consideration these problems immediately. The other reason one which every fore- sighted manufacturer will grasp with- out argument. correction poor conditions will not only release more power, which could not otherwise get, but will mean money pocket, due the elimination the rate penalties. Without further apology then, let examine the problems. High Demand Rates The use electrical energy the industrial plant may take number different forms. The larger the plant, and the more varied the indus- trial processes, the more likely that use pile occasionally into heavy peak loads. seldom, however, that conditions approaching those peak loads are found continu- ously throughout the work-week. Assume, for example, that the nor- mal continuous load made the energy required run motors, each which drives machines oper- ating practically constantly. ad- dition, there may air compres- sor, several pumps, electric furnace for melting, heat-treating anneal- ing purposes, welder, fans, heaters, and course, the lighting system. the course average month, the actual consumption current, in- dicated wattmeter, may only 135,000 kwhr., average kilowatt demand of, say, 660 kw. But cer- tain widely varying short periods time during that month, every piece electrically operated equipment the whole plant, plus the lights, may connected; and the maximum kilo- watt demand may build up, for 15- min. interval, 960 kw. This may happen only half dozen times dur- ing the month, and the time dur- ing which 960 kw. capacity drawn upon may only hr. altogether. Yet the central station will render double bill for services during that month, one part based the actual amount energy consumed, de- termined the wattmeter readings, and the other based the maximum “demand” made during the month, recorded demand meter which shows the highest point reached dur- ing the billable period. From the point there are two evils which result from this. The first lies the gener- ative capacity tied the central station, readiness moment’s notice satisfy his maximum de- mand for energy. The central station does not know when will called upon deliver this extra energy, and consequently, must hold reserve. The manufacturer does not use it, ex- cept for very minute fraction his working month, but the mere fact that may need any moment, bars others from using it. Conse- quently the manufacturer must pay for his privilege, and this fact intro- duces the second evil. addition his metered current charges, must pay (almost universally) “demand” charge. Suppose his average rate for current 2c. per kwhr., and his demand rate $1.25 per kw. His Electric Power Faming total kw. ment rent roug tent com elec use it the tua hig 4 a al 4 Part The High Demand and Low Power Factor Situations total bill for the imaginary month above would then 135,- 000 kwhr. 2c., $2,700, plus 960 kw. $1.25, $1,200. other words, per cent his bill would pay- ment for privilege, and not for cur- rent used. And this privilege amounts roughly about 60,000 kwhr. po- automatic control equipment designed partially diminish the current supplied to certain selected types equipment whenever the to- tal load approaches set figure, the demand may kept within that without interrupting produc- on. The chart (Fig. illustrates the second principle admirably. Likewise MAXIMUM MINUTE DEMAND 960 lu Fig. chart record electrical demand Pennsylvania industrial plant. tential output held dormant his command. Both the manufacturer and the cen- tral station are losers: the manufac- turer because almost third his electrical bill for power did not use; and the central station because get twice much revenue for the capacity has held reserve, could freed and turned into ac- tual output. are two methods whereby the high peaks the above considered demand may leveled off: carefully scheduling the opera- tion the intermittently used equip- ment the plant, their current demands may made come the low-load periods the normally operated apparatus. This method, few small, expertly managed plants, extremely difficult put into ef- fect the average large plant. requires the greatest care closest supervision schedules. Fur- ther the least slip-up may allow most continues the example under discus- sion. The maximum 15-min. demand given week actual indus- trial plant Pennsylvania was 960 kw. Five times only during that week did the demand exceed 790 kw., and only times did the demand exceed 720 kw. This totalizing chart record was fair average the week-by- week demand conditions the plant. control equipment was installed and set first cut off any excess power above the line 790 kw. several weeks success- ful operation without the least let- down production, observation and planning made possible few minor changes schedules that permitted resetting the control figure line 720 kw. Again, the pro- duction was not affected, but total drop demand had been gained 960 720 240 kw. demand rate $1.25 per kw. this meant saving the manufacturer $300 per month, the rate $3,600 per year. And not only this manu- facturer saving money every month, but has released equivalent amount energy his neighbor down the street, who, using day, helping reduce unemploy- ment. Just what that such automatic control equipment does? automat- ically trims the current furnished various selected pieces apparatus the plant whenever the total load reaches predetermined figure. These pieces apparatus are selected for this current-trimming maneuver the basis their capacity func- tion completely necessary less than full load during such peak peri- ods. Electric heating equipment such melting furnaces, heat-treating and annealing ovens, baking, enameling and japanning ovens, oil heaters and many similar loads are all ideal for load control purposes, since the cur- rent them may reduced inter- rupted momentarily with little loss temperature and loss production. There sufficient heat storage the walls practically all heating equipment carry over brief periods current lessening, even slight current interruptions. These are the primary sources load con- trol, due their steady performance characteristics. Secondarily, large motor-driven air ammonia compressors may un- loaded for brief periods without stop- ping the motors, and with little loss pressure. Large pumps may throt- tled. Machines connected motors through magnetic clutches may de-clutched without stopping the motors. Finally, and last resort, en- tire circuit may temporarily dis- connected, stopping machine group machines until the total load has dropped sufficiently provide the necessary margin within the prede- termined demand setting enable operation again. Careful analysis will determine the proper figure which the control equipment may set that disturbances production, any, may short, and not pro- nounced. Each individual situation must considered its own merits. The Iron Age, October 12, 1933—19 ya the ors, ad- ers, the vatt cer may awn her. tual de- ngs, num and- ner- de- tion and fact pay nust xtra and There may cases where corrections are not feasible. Experience has shown that such cases are few and far between. very large num- ber instances, demand figures have been decreased upward one- third their former proportions with- out any disturbance production schedules. is, course, common practice from the safety standpoint use circuit breakers trip the current supply when load gets too big. Com- plete interruption tating, most instances, manual re- starting. The main tween automatic load control and the circuit breaker are these: Automatic control operates kilowatt basis (like meter), takes into account high voltage, which sometimes creased demand itself, takes off only selected portions the Joad required, and when the peak over automatically restores them. The cir- cuit breaker operates ampere (current) basis, trips out the par- ticular portion the load that causing the peak, does not gage the duration the peak and does not re- store the load when the peak past. Various types automatic electric control equipment are available meet the different load conditions varying industrial operations. The essential principle involved, however, limit the load absorbed plant set figure “trimming” even temporarily disconnecting the current supply certain equipment during heavy load periods, and re- storing the full current supply when the peak condition has passed. illustration typical control cab- inet given herewith (Fig. 2). With regard installations such equipment, the National Paper Prod- ucts Co. reports saving $3,375 per year lessened demand, the Ken- nedy Valve Mfg. Co. saving $2,- 900 per year, General Motors Corpn., about $2,100 per year, Crucible Steel Co. America for one three in- stallations saving $3,600 per year, and Lycoming Mfg. Co. saving $2,400 per year. Simonds Saw Steel Co. says the “savings are very great, and operation two electric melting furnaces are much more satis- factory.” Low Power Factor Volumes have been written the evils low power factor without very much dent having been made the annually growing tribute exacts from industry. The reason, course, lies the relative cheapness, ease starting, and general all-around fool- proof qualities fine American in- duction motors. With low investment costs, with operation and maintenance minimized, induction motors have long been the favorite choice manufac- turers; and per cent the cases the choice has been logical; for, like hard liquor, not the use but the abuse which causes difficulties. Iron Age, October 12, 1933 The correction low power factor may tied with any all these conditions: Excessive loading lines and equip- ment, necessitating either additional lines and equipment, the estab- lishment high power factor gain relief. Excessive rates for power, due the high cost supplying existing to factor. Excessive variation voltage, seri- iously affecting operation and result- ing losses from lowered output quality output. duction motors will operate what termed “good” power factor (that when Fig. 2—Typical auto- matic power demand control, limit ex- cessive peak loads industrial plant. full rated load. under low load conditions that power factor becomes bad. This fact made clear the well-known Westinghouse chart shown herewith (Fig. 3). This chart the composite the curves operation great number induction motors actually tested. shows per cent power factor under load, per cent under one-quarter load, and from three-quarters full load prac- tically uniform per cent power factor. fact, all induction appara- tus has better power factor full load than when underloaded. This the first and greatest fault such equipment, for seldom possible arrange keep oper- ating continuously full load. Gen- erally other conditions make seem wise install induction equipment bit more capacity than normally needed; consequence operation one-half three-quarter load rather Thus low than full load the rule. power factor results. and the subject rate penalties. Fortunately there case low power factor operation that susceptible correction, and almost always such corrective treatment yields excellent returns the oper- ator, either power bill savings more power available, both. For excellent detailed treatment the whole subject there better text available than Underhill’s “Power Factor Waste.” The high spots may summarized follows: practically all alternating cur- rent systems, due the reactance found the lines, transformers, induction motors and other equipment the circuit, current lags behind the voltage. This reactance causes active current flow addition the active, working current. induction motor, the active current magnetizes the working parts. not measured wattmeter for does not produce energy. ator capacity order permit the active current (which does real work, and may measured wattmeter) function. The apparent power nished greater than the working power. The apparent gether the readings and ammeter, and kilovolt-amperes. The actual watts. The ratio actual parent power the power way pres righ kw. the Fro the syst rent will men alize 391 The but swee with ment Teme best ing low the low not almost oper- For the text Power may cur- nce ipment ind the tion can- ter for Never- nit the work, meter) fur- power ring ured power, factor. Since the reactive component al- ways deg. from the active com- ponent, the entire relation may ex- pressed graphically means right triangle, Fig. Assume full load motor power fac- tor per cent, amounting 400 kw. any convenient scale lay off the horizontal line 400 units. From draw the indefinite line make the angle BAC whose cosine 0.85 and from erect the indefinite perpendicular BC. Then the line equivalent the apparent power flowing system, 471 kva., and the line equivalent the reactive compo- nent, 248 rkva. Now, the load cut one-half, since power cur- rent varies directly with the load, will 200 kw. The reactive com- ponent will remain the same because depends solely the physical di- mensions and intensity the mag- netic field the motor. Consequently the apparent power half load will the line DC, equivalent 318 and the power factor meas- 200 318 per cent. Before considering the application electrical corrective equipment low power factor situation, ad- visible study the loads which each piece inductive apparatus usually operated, determine whether some -purely mechanical changes may made that each motor may worked under more nearly full load conditions. For instance, the Plymouth Motor Car Co. made careful study 704 motors used the miscellaneous small parts, crankshaft and axle de- partments, and found that many were oversized for the jobs which they were being used. The net result this study was per cent decrease effected changing 278 mo- tors smaller sizes, cutting the total horsepower from 1710 878. The equivalent corrective alized these motor changes was 391 rkva., which resulted very great improvement power factor. The motor investment account was decreased some $10,000, and the total cost the changes involved was but $3,000. Use Corrective Equipment However, seldom that such sweeping improvement can made without the use corrective equip- ment. this point necessary remark that the whole secret cor- recting the low power factor of.any system lies finding the best means balancing the reactive that used magnetiz- the field the induction motor. this reactive component adds the current from the generator, introduce element that Will set practically reactive cur- while increasing the effective load, that will actually balance re- Power Motor Fig. 3—Power factor curve induction motor, showing how power factor increases with underloading. active current while not materially adding the load; either case making the average power factor the system closer unity. Synchronous motors may used place of, with induction motors the one hand, condensers (rotary static) may used the other. Synchronous motors are particularly applicable low-speed, constant- speed drives requiring high torque, such compressors, pumps, grinders, rolling mills, band saws, conveyors, large ventilating fans, mill line shafts, motor generator sets, etc., mainly heavy duty applications hp. and over. Modern synchronous motors have been developed supply prac- tically any where the squirrel cage induction mo- tor can used. And the synchronous motor, contradistinction the in- duction motor, not only maintains high efficiency when operated less than the rated load, but the power factor correction actually becomes greater. can, brief, used the producer leading instead lagging power factor. Thus, when synchronous motor used load, but simply idles the line, called synchronous, rotary condenser. Its function then simply furnish leading component sufficient value largely neu- tralize the lagging component incident the operation induction ap- paratus. addition such rotary type condenser, there are many varieties static, non-moving condensers (usually called capacitors) available for the same purpose. The function Fig. 4—Typical graphic representation power factor triangle, showing increase low power factor half load. any condenser, rotary static, that making constantly available ca- pacity leading component sufficient keep the working parts the sys- tem completely magnetized without drawing unduly the current sup- plied the generators. hard and fast rules may laid down for the determination the question correcting low power fac- tor. Individual will always have taken into account. First there should careful an- alysis existing equipment and study the possibilities improving operation readjustment pres- ent loads and working schedules. The Fairbanks Scale Co. used capacitor installation raise the pow- factor from per cent, and secured net returns $2,890 per year. somewhat larger installation similar equipment raised per cent power factor per cent the Indian Motorcycle Co. plant, en- abling the company take advantage better power rate saving over $9,000 per year. The installation stationary con- denser equipment enabled the Syn- thane Corpn., earn bonus for power factor over standard instead pay- ing penalty for power factor be- low standard; thus effecting net re- duction per cent the unit cost purchased power. Even more the point today the experience St. Louis concern confronted with in- creased kva. requirement and pos- sible shut-down due power factor operation per cent. condenser installation corrected the power factor per cent, released per cent additional motor load, and afforded substantial reductions the power bills. large wood-working plant Ohio, producing its own power from the burning refuse materials, many thousands dollars had been ex- pended for new machinery with indi- vidual motor drives. The new oper- ating conditions imposed very low power factor the system, with the result that the generator heated up, voltage regulation became bad that frequent stoppages production oc- curred, and the management, de- spair, considered the installation another generator, duplicating the existing one. synchronous con- denser, floated the line, however, improved the power factor from per cent, and made possible the addition even greater load the old generator, while the voltage regulation difficulties were completely cleared up. brief, the correction low pow- factor, from the economic point view, may mean lower investment charges plant equipment, dcreased power costs with increased machine efficiency, better voltage regulation with decreased production costs, and lower power rates, say nothing the possibility securing more power meet increased production demands. The Iron Age, October 12, = q : 0 OF be 7 q 4 7 4 Shs | i af 4 > : 7 7 teenth Fall meeting the Ameri- can Welding Society, held the Book-Cadillac Hotel, Detroit, Oct. will surely include the extreme generosity the program makers. Twenty-nine technical papers were presented. afternoon was spent visiting the welding departments the Ford Motor and the Kelsey-Hayes Wheel companies, and throughout the convent