The Iron Age 1929-07-18: Vol 124 Iss 3

New York, July 18, 1929 ESTABLISHED 1855 Quality Heat Treating Improved VOL. 124, No. Increased Production Same Floor Area and Reduction Labor Costs Also Result from Electrification Department production the same floor area formerly occupied, and elimination large amount hand labor are major benefits derived from electrification the heat- treating department the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio, which 6,000,000 cash register parts are heat treated each month. Conservation manufacturing space has been accomplished the installation me- chanical handling devices, automatic transportation system now forming integral part the plan where- material process moves progressively through the department without any backtracking. For carburizing purposes the department equipped with five electric carburizing furnaces. Immediately be- hind them metal table which carburizing boxes are loaded hand. Connecting right angles with the metal table and running alongside each furnace roller conveyor which carries filled boxes position near the front the furnace. Here the boxes are picked the quality work, increased special charging crane, the charging arm which holds simultaneously two rows four boxes each. The arm then swings around and reaches into any the five furnaces, depositing the eight boxes. The time required for carburizing ranges from hr. and the temperature varies from 1500 1650 deg. Fahr., both the time and the temperature depending upon the type material being treated. boxes are in. long, in. wide and in. deep and are larger capacity than formerly. However, the change size has been accomplished increasing the height without altering the thickness the box; otherwise, the temperature the furnace would have increased bring about the desired Carburizing Furnaces Are 24-hr. Schedule Carburizing furnaces are 24-hr. schedule, start- ing Monday morning and ending Saturday noon. The continuous operation provides steady electrical power Furnaces Are Charged Special Crane, Charging Arm Which Holds Simultane- ously Two Rows Four Carburizing Boxes Each OO 7 7 « q the heat-treating department the National Cash Register Co., Day- ton, Ohio, carburizing boxes, after being removed from furnaces, are placed cooling rolls (above). Continuous hardening furnace shown ground. the lower photograph oper- ators are loading carburizing boxes hand metal platform immediately be- hind carburizing furnaces. 142—July 18, 1929, The Iron Age — ~ 7 tg _ a The Iron Age, July 18, 1929—143 is- ing furnace (below), arts fall through chute out ft. ischarged into tote boxes short into quenching National Cash Register Co. They are carried screen conveyor and are Views through chute — vu v line cyanide pots (above). charge end harden roller conveyor. tank. — 4 load and eliminates the necessity for cooling the fur- naces comparatively short intervals, thus adding sub- stantially the operating efficiency and the output the department. distance about ft. from the front the furnaces are unloading and cooling rolls, each roll having When the boxes have cooled sufficiently, they are moved roller conveyor the loading platform continuous hardening furnace, where the cash register parts are removed. The boxes, still the roller con- veyor, are returned storage underneath the metal load- ing table behind the carburizing furnaces. The cash Conveyors Conveyor ‘Elec Lead Pots Pots Salt Bath Platforms. Bolt Globe Tumbling Heat Treated Are Loaded Carburizing Boxes (A) and Are Moved Front Side Car- burizing Furnaces Roller Conveyors, Where They Are Picked Charging Crane and Placed Furnaces. After being heat treated, they are removed from furnaces charging crane and are deposited cooling rolls (B). When sufficiently cooled, they roller conveyor loading platform continuous hardening furnace (C), where parts are removed and are fed hand metal belt continuous hardening furnace. Parts pass through furnace and thence through metal washing machine and drying oven (D), from which are dis- charged into tote boxes. After passing inspection, parts are transported roller conveyor storage position ready out department. For certain kinds work, lead pots and cyanide pots are used. They are arranged that gravity con- veyor (E) runs between line lead pots and line cyanide pots, serving both. capacity eight carburizing boxes. The charging crane removes the boxes from the furnaces the same manner which they were charged and deposits them the cooling rolls, where they remain until they are cool enough handled hand. Incidentally, each roll consists two parallel roller conveyors in. wide and placed ft. above the floor. 18, 1929, The Iron Age register parts the metal belt the con- tinuous hardening furnace workman the loading end the furnace. the discharge end the heat- treated parts fall through air-tight chute into quench- ing solution which fills quenching tank built the floor. The parts drop metal screen conveyor which car- ries them upward about ft., where they are discharged Roller Conveyor for Stock Empty Box Roller Conveyor | = through chute into tote boxes resting short roller conveyor. From this point the parts through washing ma- chine for cleaning metals and thence through drying oven from which they are discharged into tote boxes. When filled, the tote boxes are put roller conveyor, are carefully inspected and are transported storage position, where they are ready taken the next department the process connection with the continuous hardening furnace, the most difficult problem timing the movement the steel conveyor belt that each different kind part properly hardened. Since there are thousands various Heat Treating Specifications See other side for Sketch Part Red Portion hardened. Approved Test Dept. parts constantly passing through the department, close watch over the movement the belt must kept assure readjustment speed whenever necessary. The time required for passage parts through the furnace ranges from min. min., depending the size the part. The average temperature the fur- nace 1400 deg. Fahr. For certain kinds work lead pots and cyanide pots are used. They are arranged that gravity conveyor runs between line lead pots and line cyanide pots, serving both. Parts, contained tote boxes, move down this conveyor which, the end the line pots, turns right angles and leads the metal cleaning machine. certain cash register parts localized carburizing and hardening necessary. such acetylene carburizing and hardening machines are used for spot hardening. Furnaces the heat-treating department are under close pyrometer control. The pyrometers are located special room the east end the department and are controlled operator who employed and under the supervision the research department. Each tote box cash register parts coming the heat- treating department accompanied stock which delivered the pyrometer room. The furnace loads are made and specifications are assigned the operator charge the pyrometer room. case new part heat treated, the pyrometer operator sends the stock card and sample the part the research department, which prepares specifications for heat treatment and writes them special card for new parts. These cards are filed the research depart- ment, the pyrometer room, and the heat-treating department according the name and page number the part. PECIFICATIONS for New Parts, Prepared Research Department, Are Entered Special Cards (upper left) Which Are Filed Research Department, Pyrometer Room and Heat-Treating Department HEN Furnace Load Made Up, Facts Are Entered Card (right center) Which Kept Two Months. Then information trans- ferred another file held for two years. For each run naces, work sheet (lower left) filled out operator pyrometer room, who sends copy heat-treat- ing department When the operator the pyrometer room receives stock cards parts heat treated, checks the specifications against the specifications for the same part contained his files. This check serves guard against error. When load for furnace made up, facts are entered card which called “record parts heat treated.” Information includes the furnace number, specification, platform and truck numper, order number, amount, identification the packer and furnace man, the time the heat commenced and finished and the total time heat treatment. This record kept for two months, after which transferred another file held for two years. For each run the furnaces work sheet made out the operator the pyrometer room, who sends copy the heat-treating department. yearly record the operation each furnace filed for reference purposes small cards giving the date and the number parts heat treated. All pyrometer records are kept for two years that facts regarding heat treatment any part hand case any question arises. The Iron Age, July 18, 1929—145 > Page No. Date 192 Part . Form 1422__» 4 Reco rd f Parts Fur. | Trouble Shooting With Microscopes Characteristic Microstructure Indicates Cause and Remedy for Many Common Troubles Steel, Iron Malleable Foundry foundrymen think the microscope tool for use only the research department. From several years’ experience, have found useful for the investigation and prevention defects castings and other metal products. When “trouble shooting,” the microscope not only magnifies the foundry- man’s eyesight 100 1000 times, but also enables him have permanent record for future reference the photomicrograph. will attempt give some illustrative examples this specialized use the microscope for the location, investigation, and prevention troubles often arising the foundry. (Unless otherwise noted, the magnifica- tion 100 diameters, reduced one-ninth.) The cost the *Metallurgist and associate metallurgist, respectively, Stock- ham Pipe Fittings Co., Birmingham. FIG. 18, 1929, The Iron Age equipment not excessive—usable microscopes cost low $250. Examination specimen may made one-half hour, and photographs can completed less than two hours. Supplementing chemical analysis, and aid the maintenance quality, have found that the microscope has earned place for itself modern industry. Figures and show steel casting before and after the anneal. The coarse white grains ferrite the steel, cast, form planes weakness, hence unannealed steel castings are brittle. These large grains are broken the anneal, shown Fig. producing tough metal. The thoroughness the annealing operation steel can readily judged the grain size. One the difficult problems the manufacture steel castings remove all the slag, inclusions, = FIG. FIS. FIG. incidental the melting and refining processes. Exami- nation polished sample, unetched will show such inclusions. Fig. unrefined steel, containing large slag inclusions, indicating very inferior metal. clean electric steel would present almost unblemished mirror, having only light sprinkling very small specks Micros show cast irons various degrees machinability. Figures and are unetched. The first these gray iron with large flakes graphite, which naturally causes planes weakness. This iron suitable only where ease machining more im- portant than strength. The strength could increased lowering the carbon silicon content, thus obtaining finer grained graphite. Figure shows such iron combining machinability with great strength. Figure illustrates iron with still smaller graphite, due greater amount carbon the combined form. Com- bined carbon appears mottled areas the etched sample the same iron, Fig. This shows white patches hard cementite (iron carbide) surrounded striped mottled areas pearlite (small plates iron carbide mixed with small crystals pure iron). This casting could not machined high speed, unless an- nealed, because the larger cementite masses caused too quick cooling, excessively low silicon carbon. Figure very hard iron, almost unmachina- ble. The large areas white are cementite, which very hard and brittle. Discovering Leaky Gray Iron Castings Some types gray iron are subjected high pres- sures and difficult prevent leaks the older kinds very soft gray iron. Leakage, rule, due two things: porous grain and shrinkage cavities. Figure 500, reduced one-half) shows weak, porous, gray iron, after etching. black space drilled hole. The jagged part where the drill has torn out large plate graphite. The microscope clearly shows why such structure would not hold pressure, although, the naked eye, the iron seems have close grain. view shrinkage cavity, 1000, reduced one-half, (etched sample) given Fig. 10. Besides leaking under pressure, “shrinks” cause trouble machining, due the very hard edge shown white area around the black hole the micrograph. The remedy feed the metal continuously while pouring fill the cavities, use metal which shrinks less, or, last resort, change the design the part. The microscope has found immediate place the malleable foundry, since well adapted for locating a FIG. (TOP) FIG. (LOWER) trouble the anneal. Any difficulty due composition can located easily chemical analysis; however, this tells comparatively little about the heat treatment defective casting. Figure shows the white iron, be- fore the anneal (etched). The material very hard and brittle, the structure being characteristic tree-like form called dendrites. this hard iron had had even very light anneal, some black spots temper carbon would seen, Fig. partly annealed malle- able). Spots black temper carbon are surrounded light rings practically carbon-free iron (ferrite), but the general gray background shows that graphitization not nearly complete. Figure illustrates the structure completely annealed malleable. The black spots are temper carbon, the light grains are ferrite. Sometimes there difficulty machining malleable castings. the microscope shows “bull’s-eye” struc- ture, Fig. 12, the anneal was not sufficient for the composition the metal. Sometimes the trouble due hard edge, shown Fig. 14. This usually traceable either annealing conditions, faulty analysis. The Iron Age, July 18, 1929—147 7 New Wright Aeronautical Engines Three Units Have Many Parts Interchangeable— Manufacturing and Storing Problems Are Simplified FAY LEONE FAUROTE these pages description the Wright Whirl- wind aeronautical engine, and its method fab- rication and assembly.* The property the Wright Aeronautical Corporation then consisted some seven acres land. Manufacture was being carried plant, part which was rented, having area 125,- 000 sq. ft. There were some 1100 employees. The fixed assets amounted about $2,100,000. The public’s ac- ceptance flying safe means transportation and the early part 1928 there appeared Feb. 1928, page 394; March page 590; March 29, page 867. The present the first installment series articles dealing with the manufacture the new Wright engines for aircraft. the rapid growth the aviation industry have, however, combined produce increase aeronautical engine manufacture which hardly seemed possible year ago. present there are more than 2600 employees the company’s payrolls; the corporation owns some acres land adjacent the main line the Erie Railroad Paterson, J.; has over 600,000 sq. ft. manufacturing and testing space; enlarged plant equipped with mod- ern machinery, much special design, capable producing 500 engines month one shift. The gross investment fixed assets the end February, 1929, according information given James Prince, treasurer, exceeded $7,600,000. The profit for the year Top Page Are, Left Right, the Gipsy 90-Hp. Engine Four Cylinders, Side and End Views and Three-Fourths Front View the Five-Cylinder 165-Hp. Whirlwind Engine, with Exhaust Collector Ring and Nose Cowl Place Bottom Page Are, Left Right, Three-Fourths Front View the Seven-Cylinder 225-Hp. Whirl- wind Engine and Front and Side Views the Nine-Cylinder 300-Hp. Unit 148—July 18, 1929, The Iron Age \ ended Dee. 31, 1928, amounted, after deduction Federal taxes, $2,433,771. Fifteen hundred and ten engines the 225-hp. Whirlwind type constituted the bulk the year’s business. The company’s sales 1928 amounted $8,781,516. This represented delivery 1644 engines various types, together with spare parts. these, 766 engines were sold the United States Government, the remaining 878 commercial manufacturers. Following natural result growth aeronautical transportation, there has been demand for wider range engine power. The Wright company has accordingly designed new line Whirlwind engines five-, seven- and nine-cylinder sizes, developing 165, 225 and 300 hp. respectively. These new power plants are lighter than the earlier ones and contain several refinements and im- provements design which will make their description and method fabrication interest all the readers THE IRON AGE. paramount importance the fact that these three new models there very complete interchange- ability parts, wherever Furthermore, their manufacture, now being carried the new Wright plant, the first good example the application mass production methods very close limits that have seen the airplane engine field. The new engines are now going into quantity production and about day are coming through. The ratio production the three types present 400 the nine-cylinder 300 hp. (Model R-975), the seven-cylinder 225 hp. (Model R-760), and the five-cylinder 165 hp. unit (Model R-540). addition this, the engineers have developed the experimental department inverted V-type, 500-hp. air-cooled engine which promises much. According Charles Lawrance, president the company, this engine has successfully passed its 50-hr. official test, and experimental contract for these engines has been placed the United States Government. Mr. Lawrance says further that this type engine will, believed, measure supersede the large radial air-cooled engines for heavy transport service, due its greatly reduced head resistance for equivalent horsepower. While this engine has not been flight-tested, and adequate per- formance data are yet available, said that the repre- sentatives the Government have confidence type for observation and bombing planes. Arrangements have also been made with the Havi- land Aircraft Co., London, England, for the manufactur- ing and selling rights the United States the 100-hp. four-cylinder air-cooled Gipsy engine. ex- pected that this engine will into production during the summer. The Wright line aeronautical engines will then comprise five models ranging from 100 525 hp. Development the Lawrance Engine early 1914 Charles Lawrance attempted demonstrate the value the air-cooled aeronautical en- gine, building two-cylinder and three-cylinder types Top Page Are, Left Right, Front, Three-Fourths Rear. and Side Views the Five-Cylinder 165- Hp. Whirlwind Engine. collector rings and nose cowls are not place, but two views show the propeller hub Bottom Page Are, Left Right, Rear View the Nine-Cylinder 300-Hp. Whirlwind Engine and Side and Front Views the Still Larger Cyclone Engine, Also with Nine Cylinders, but Developing 525 Hp. The Iron Age, July 18, 7 t | 280 orsepower 160 Revolutions per RIGHT Whirlwind Model R-975, 9-Cylinder Aircraft Engine, Power Curves Full and Propeller Load; Fuel Consumption Full Rich and Best Setting; Compression Ratio Using Aviation Gasoline experimental scale. Unfortunately, was unable bring his ideas fruition during the World War, but both the English engineers and the American aviation authorities, realizing the value the light weight and the simplicity the air-cooled type, became interested. 1923, through merger effected between the Lawrance Aero Engine Corporation and the Wright company, all rights the manufacture and sale the Lawrance air- cooled engines were obtained; and finally, after success- ful test, the Army gave the Wright company order for 350-hp. engine which was known the shop Model R-1. This was successfully designed, built and tested and was the first air-cooled radial engine operated successfully the United States. Later, Army and Navy orders for 150 and 200-hp. nine-cylinder air-cooled types came through. The smaller one was abandoned and the larger developed through stages into the Model J-1, ancestor the famous Whirlwind. Models and J-4, containing refinements and improvements, followed, the latter becoming favor- ite with both the Navy and commercial manufacturers for planes requiring 200-hp. Finally the J-5 came into being, and this model was used Lindbergh, Byrd, Chamberlain and others who successfully completed the amazing trans-oceanic and trans-continental flights dur- ing 1926, 1927 and 1928. The new series which will replace the Wright will known the J-6 series and will retain the name “Whirlwind”; while the large type, developing 525-hp., has been christened, accordance with the Wright prac- tice naming their engines after the winds, “Cyclone.” Three New Wright Whirlwinds ELIEVING that would great advantage most the major parts could standardized and made interchangeable, the three new Wright Whirlwinds, hav- 150—July 18, 1929, The Iron Age ing five, seven and nine cylinders respectively, have been built radial engines with standard stationary cylinders and rotating crankshafts. They operate the familiar four-stroke cycle principle, but contrary the usual prac- tice automotive power plants there only one crank throw for the entire set pistons, instead separate throw for each piston. The connecting rod from the pis- ton the vertical cylinder the only connecting rod at- tached directly the This known the “master rod.” The other connecting rods are, turn, at- tached the big end the master rod linked pin, all connecting rods and pistons thus working together the crankshaft revolves. The crankshaft single-throw two-piece type, made from alloy-steel forging and counterbalanced prevent vibration. drilled for oil passages, giv- ing positive-pressure lubrication the bearing surfaces. All the bearings are ample size and generously lubri- cated. The connecting rods are forged alloy steel and consist the one-piece master rod and the articu- lated rods, one for each cylinder. The wrist-pin and knuckle-pin bushings are bronze, pressed into the ar- ticulated rods. The crankpin bearing anti-friction metal, steel backed, pressed and doweled into the big end the master rod. away with the two-piece master rod with its cap, for- merly used Wright Whirlwind engines, and use its place one-piece rod cut out solid forging, which when the crankshaft disassembled may slid from the open end the crank. Aluminum-Alloy Pistons Used The pistons are made aluminum-alloy, cross-ribbed the under side the head, and fitted with full-floating hollow pins held place expanding spring wire locks, that the ends the pins are prevented from destroy- ing the cylinder walls. The piston pins and cylinder walls are lubricated oil spray from the crank and knuckle- pin bearings. The upper external surface the piston head slightly concave, which conjunction with the internal shape the cylinder head results almost ideal spherical combustion chamber. The whole valve mechanism, including push-rods, completely inclosed protection against dust, salt- spray and the like, the rocker shafts being mounted housing cast integrally with the cylinder head. Hard- ened steel cam followers operate through hardened steel rollers running the cam ring. The push-rods are hollow steel tubing fitted with case-hardened steel ball ends. These actuate the forged steel rocker arms. The rocker arms are carried ball bearings lubricated Alemite Zerk pressure system and have provisions for adjustments necessary for correct valve clearances. Equipped with air-cooling fins carefully machined out solid steel barrel, the cylinders are attached the crankcase eight steel studs passing through the cylin- der flange. The aluminum alloy head screwed and shrunk the combustion end the cylinder. The intake ports are the rear the cylinders, while the exhaust ports are placed the forward side, obtain the most effective cooling. Crankcase Assembly Four Castings Four major castings aluminum alloy make the crankcase assembly. The cam follower ring, carrying the tappet guides, cast integral with the main section the crankcase, giving rigid and accurate support and perfect lubrication the shafts, and resulting considerable saving weight and the elimination number detailed parts. The rear section carries all accessory drives, such those for magnetos, oil and fuel pumps, generator and rotary induction system. 120 vision made also for the easy installation suitable generator and starter. The whole crankcase unit strong, compact and light weight. All accessories the engine are the rear, including the valve-operating push-rods. this arrangement the head resistance the engine while flight reduced effective cowling design possible. Acces- sories such the magneto, are protected also. Each engine provided with front exhaust manifold the collector-ring type and with nose cowling with shutters operated from the pilot’s seat. These movable shutters permit the flow air around the crankcase and cylinders regulated give the maximum engine effi- ciency under varying climatic conditions and atmospheric temperatures. Provision for Lubrication Lubrication provided pressure pump which carries the oil the front rear the hollow crank- shaft, from which point distributed the various bearings the equipment. The excess oil from all parts the engine drains into sump located the main crankshaft casting, between the bottom cylinders. From this sump single-suction pump delivers the oil the main oil tank the airplane, passing through strainer installed convenient point outside the engine. This strainer removes any foreign material that may have found its way into the lubricating system. The oil pressure automatically regulated adjustable valve. system has been carefully designed eliminate all external oil pipes. Experience has shown that external oil pipes are liable leakage and they have proved unsatisfactory service, due the excessive cooling the oil cold weather. this new design troubles arising from these sources have been ended. Magnetos and Carbureter Are Rear Two Scintilla magnetos, mounted behind the engine and operating independently, provide the ignition through two separate spark plugs each cylinder. While both these magnetos are normally simultaneous use, the engine will operate emergency one magneto, with slight loss speed. specially designed Stromberg carbureter the single-barrel type, mounted the rear section the crankcase, supplies the fuel mixture. Passing through the carbureter into the diffuser chamber the crankcase, the mixture evenly distributed through all cylinders unique rotary impeller mounted this diffuser chamber. This system positive control the distribution the mixture produces smoothly running engine and special value the smaller types, eliminating the vi- bration caused unequal distribution the combustible mixture. “hot spot” which thoroughly vaporizes the fuel mixture provided above the carbureter. The tem- perature may regulated the pilot that maxi- mum efficiency and fuel economy may obtained under all kinds conditions. The same type and diameter mounting ring used for all three the new Wright Whirlwinds. All controls are placed the rear the engine, thus simplifying the installation. Aside from the and other connective parts which are manifestly not interchangeable between the three models, all the other parts, such the cylinder, cylinder heads, valves, rocker push-rods, pistons, piston pins and the like, are wholly interchangeable. This proving great advantage and will simplify greatly the maintenance and service problems, both the field and the shop. Each engine shipped complete with the following items: air heater and cleaner, nose cowling, Engine Specifications cooled, four cycle, fixed radial Displacement 756 in. 975 cu. in. Guaranteed horsepower (sea level) 2000 r.p.m. 165 225 300 Fuel consumption (maxi- num), per hphr........ 0.55 0.55 Ib. 0.55 Oil consumption (maxi- mum), per hphr....... 0.035 0.035 Ib. 0.035 Ib. Length overall (no Mounting flange pro- Diameter overall........ in. in. in. WEIGHTS, EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES Engine (including Air cleaner and heater... Ib. lb. Ib. pipes and collec- Total weight standard specification .......... 402 Ib. 460 Ib. 559 Ib. Shipping weight (includ- Size shipping box.... 85cu.ft. ft. exhaust manifold, ignition switch, priming pump, tool kit, instruction book and domestic shipping box. Extra accessories for all models, not included the table, include Eclipse hand inertia starter, weighing lb. approximately; Eclipse generator, 15-volt, 15-amp., lb.; Eclipse generater control box, Fuel pump (Wright C-3 modified), lb.; Standard steel propeller hub, Ib. Relation Power R.P.M. and Fuel Used Power curve diagrams, one which here repro- duced, indicate the power output and fuel consumption the engines various speeds. The “Full Throttle Power” curve shows the average power output the engine speeds. The “Propeller Load” curve based the rated speed each type engine, showing the power output obtained given engine speed with the engine fitted with propeller which will permit the engine reach rated r.p.m. full throttle. For ex- ample, the rated speed the “Whirlwind Nine” 2000 r.p.m.; reference the “Propeller Load” curve for this engine shows power output 325 hp. this speed; 1800 r.p.m. the output 236 hp., and through the range the curve. the full throttle speed above below 2000 r.p.m., owing the type propeller fitted, then the propeller load curve will start that point the power curve corresponding the maximum r.p.m. and will similar form the propeller load curve drawn from 2000 From the fuel consumption curve the “Whirlwind Nine” will seen that, the “Full Rich” position the carbureter mixture control, the specific fuel consump- tion pounds for each brake hphr. decreases from 0.60 1600 r.p.m. 0.57 2200 r.p.m. the “Full Throttle Power” curve. With the mixture control adjustment utilized increase the proportion air fuel the carbureter the maximum point which the engine still loses r.p.m., the fuel consumption indicated the “Best Setting” curve for full throttle power. The fuel burned ranges from 0.53 the brake hphr. 1600 r.p.m. 0.50 Ib. 2200 r.p.m. These two curves show also how the fuel consumption The Iron Age, July 18, | | 7 7 | | | | | a a Main Plant the Wright Aeronautical Corporation Paterson, can varied any fixed r.p.m. using the mixture control. For example, 1800 r.p.m. the fuel used varies from 0.518 Ib. 0.586 according the setting the mixture control. The “Propeller Load” fuel curves in- dicate similar variation fuel consumption, cor- responding changes r.p.m. and the position the mixture control valve the carbureter. The upper “Propeller Load” fuel curve shows the fuel burned various r.p.m. with “full rich” mixture; the lower “Propeller Load” fuel curve demonstrates clearly the result using the mixture control. should noted that considerably lower fuel con- sumption than that indicated the curves can ob- tained actual flight intelligent use the mixture control. The method procedure set the mixture control the “full rich” position and the throttle con- trol the point where the engine speed from above that required; the mixture control then opened out give the carbureter additional air until the engine r.p.m. have decreased the required speed. The engine then operating the most economical mixture consistent with smooth running. desired plot fuel consumption curve for propeller which allows maximum engine speed above below 2000 r.p.m., then the maximum r.p.m. the required fuel consumption curve must correspond the full throttle r.p.m. the propeller load curve. The fuel consumption curve can then plotted follow form the propeller load fuel curve the diagram shown. convert the specific fuel consumption into gallons hour, the specific consumption pounds the hphr. multiplied the horsepower output the engine, the product being divided the weight pounds gallon the fuel used. The resultant the consumption gallons hour. The average weight gallon aviation gasoline normally obtainable lb. Synthetic Molding Sand Preferred Dutch Foundryman FOUNDRY molding sand problem was discussed Van Aarst paper “The Problem Foundry Molding Sand,” presented the Third International Foundrymen’s Congress London, June 14. was presented behalf the Dutch Foundry Technical As- sociation. result experiments, the author prefers syn- thetic molding sand, because all natural sands, both regards grain size and the clay content, are very ir- regular. From the beginning 1928 the author has pre- pared loam, molding sand and core sand, using only river sand, sea sand, dune sand and clay. The loam consists fine river sand, which mixed with undried clay, which flax waste and fine coal are added. Two castings, made without pattern, were cast this loam. One was the half centrifugal pump (principal dimensions: length ft., width ft., height ft., diameter delivery tube 4.6 ft., weight 19,800 time required for casting, sec.). The other casting was stern tube for motorship, which was cast vertically (time required for casting, min.; length 21.65 ft., weight 24,200 Molding sand for dry molds made fine river sand, 18, 1929, The Iron Age clay, flax waste and fine coal, mixed dry. this sand both locomotive cylinders and the heaviest type foun- dation plates are cast. also used for lighter cast- ings, but then made finer grain and without flax. For core making, sea dune sand almost exclusively used, but for very large cores fine river sand prepared. The sand dried until quite free from water. Linseed oil mainly used binding material. Technical Paper No. 442 the Bureau Mines entitled “The Blast Furnace Stock Column,” Kin- ney, North Central Experiment Station, United States Bureau Mines, Minneapolis, Minn. contains 148 pages and illustrations and charts. report cov- ering another step taken the bureau investigations iron blast furnace operations and discusses observations made 700-ton furnace, the previous studies having with and six-ton furnace. Almost every phase the operation such furnace hes been investi- gated and the results are particularly valuable. ‘ - 7 1 European mining and metallurgy not having been seriously permanently changed the war; but that point view embodies some serious errors. true, course, that shift national boundaries gives one try what was formerly con- trolled another—to which extent total change But stop that point overlook the fact that the old established metal- lurgieal districts Europe had certain long-standing re- lations with their raw material supplies and with their markets, and that the new Europe many these old systems assemblage and distribution are now cut apart tariff boundaries. speaking the individual countries must bear mind these trade changes along with the more obvious changes national control raw materials and mills. The Decline British Mining and Metallurgy Fifty years ago Great Britain was still the leading pro- ducer—as she had been for century before that—of coal, pig iron and steel, and far the leading exporter each these basal products. Today see Socialist- Labor party come into power Great Britain chiefly be- cause each these three great industries very serious condition, and because neither the two old polit- ical parties could supply intelligence enough meet those conditions. questionable, indeed, the Labor party can that; but can least attempt the task with good will which has been lacking the past. Now, trying decide whether this decline British industry temporary permanent—a matter the first importance for all us—there are several allied re- lated features which must set aside for the moment are reach any clear decision. must not, for example, confuse Great Britain with the British Empire. must not confuse industrial decline with financial weakness. For, whatever the condition and prospects strictly British industry, the British Empire still far the greatest force the world; and British financial strength still not seriously weakened her home indus- trial disturbances. future, unless these industrial troubles ended, these two statements will longer true; for imperial power and finance would decline the long run with any permanent decline the British coal and iron trade. Unlike most the other European countries, Great Britain did not gain lose single ton coal iron reserve the direct result the war. 1913, Great Britain ranks second Germany among European coal- reserve nations, but still with reserve tonnage equal that all the other European countries combined. Great Britain still has enormous reserves very low-grade iron ore, and still habitually imports most the ore from which she makes her iron tonnage. Eckel spending several months Europe the interest American clients, this being the fourth his ex- tended investigations there since the war. His close-range study industrial conditions Western Europe began with his engi- July, 1919. One phase that experience was the operation several cement mills with troop and civilian labor. the author two works dealing with cement materials, also “Coal, Iron and War.” Europe’s Industrial and Political Future Pivots Coal and Iron Old Systems Assemblage and Dis- tribution Cut Apart Tariffs— Great Britain’s Situation Most Seri- ous—Germany Must Get Ore from France EDWIN ECKEL* The difference between con- ditions 1913 and 1929 chiefly social and not strictly material. During the war Great Britain supplied coal and iron all her allies, the maximum possible— and the maximum prices that could secured. order produce this tonnage under war conditions wages were raised far above pre-war levels; and the Government aided mine owners where necessary keep production up. After the war the laborers refused have wages reduced export prices fell. shorter mine day was introduced, with resultant lower output per man employed. Meantime the trade the world general fell off very sharply and has not yet recovered. Countries which were formerly good customers have erected steel plants and tariff barriers simultaneously, not the least them being British dominions and colonies. With all these weights carry, the British coal and iron industries have been stagnant best and depressed worst; and unemploy- ment has risen chronic and alarming proportions. this situation which has defeated the Conservative and wrecked the Liberal parties this situa- tion which, unless remedied, will drive the Labor party further and further into Socialistic remedies. The weak points the situation are that practically all foods and raw materials have imported from high-cost countries; that English living costs and wages will normally far above French German levels. The strong points the situation are the location almost all the coal fields and most the iron works near the coast, the preeminence the British merchant ma- rine, and the existence old trading outlets South America and elsewhere. France Has Greatly Ore Exports Before the war France was heavy exporter iron ore, because most the output the Briey-Longwy basin went across the border German furnaces. Since the war, though some these same furnaces became French nationality, the French ore export has been heavily increased. Over half the Normandy-Anjou output goes either English German furnaces now. With regard coal supplies, France has gained the war. With the exception two mines the French edge the Sarre basin, returned France the treaties, there has been permanent accession coal lands. The Sarre field itself, which under French operation until 1935, will probably back German con- trol plebiscite that year, that its 12,000,000 tons annual output cannot looked upon French. Recent data actual French coal outputs for 1927 and 1928 are below metric tons: Coal Field 1927 1928 Pas Calais......... 24,299,220 24,042,408 Blanzy-La Mure...... 3,104,820 3,020,641 Gard-Graissessac ..... 2,235,980 2,174,330 Total 51,778,530 51,365,777 Total lignite...... 1,067,290 1,063,691 The Iron Age, July 18, | é | 2 >’ a | With regard iron ore resources, the events the past years have placed France not only first Europe but probably first the world. For, addition gain- ing conquest half the largest the world’s ore fields, another almost quite equal size has been devel- oped her own soil. Five Billion Tons Lorraine Ore terms reserve ore tonnage may assume that France now has the entire Lorraine basin some 5,000,- 000,000 tons ore, capable producing some 2,000,000,000 tons pig iron. the Anjou-Normandy basin recent work would suggest total ore reserve least 2,000,- 000,000 3,000,000,000 tons far higher grade than the Lorraine product, and capable yielding between 1,000,- 000,000 and 1,500,000,000 tons pig metal, perhaps more. against all this tonnage the reserve being drawn upon the fashion shown below, where for convenience historic reference the old German districts are separated from the pre-war French Lorraine regions. The official figures for 1928, recently issued, are used, supplemented earlier data for comparison: Iron Ore Output Present French Districts, 1913-1928—Metric Tons District 1913 1927 1928 Briey-Longwy-Nancy 19,979,937 23,872,040 26,162,582 (Ger- man) 21,136,265 19,210,980 20,404,150 Anjou-Normandy ..... 1,212,911 2,296,340 2,497,601 Other French districts. 726,023 291,560 263,509 Total French ore output 43,055,136 45,670,920 49,327,842 will seen that the old German Lorraine fields have shown slight loss since 1913; that the old French Lorraine fields have increased some per cent, and that the Anjou-Normandy-Brittany field has increased some 100 per cent. German Coal and Iron the opening the World War the German Empire was currently credited with possessing close per cent the entire European coal reserve and some per cent the total iron ore reserves. The war has reduced these percentages—the coal not too seriously, for the German total still close half the European reserve; but the iron ore very sharply, that today the German Republic holds perhaps per cent the total. The coal de- crease was due the temporary alienation the Sarre field and perhaps more permanent losses Silesia. The iron ore loss was due almost entirely the loss Lorraine, only relative trifle being the Silesian fields. This leaves Germany with the Westphalian coal field intact and with every reason press coal output there and develop new utilizations for coal and for its by- products. But regards iron and steel, implies that produce them the old scale output there must heavy importations iron ore. These importations, know, are actually progress, chiefly from France, with Sweden, Algeria and Newfoundland following, great distances, the order named. The extent which the various basal industries have been reestablished since the war well shown the fol- lowing comparison average monthly outputs during 1918, 1926, 1927 and 1928. The figures are thousands metric tons: 1913 1926 1927 1928 Coal output....... 15,849 12,114 12,298 12,500 Lignite output.... 11,506 11,656 13,399 14,250 1,897 804 1,310 985 Steel output...... 1,412 1,028 1,371 1,210 will seen that lignite shows very steady and rather surprising gain, while coal, iron and steel are still well below their pre-war levels output. And these mere tonnage comparisons add the fact that almost all the iron made now from imported iron ore, can 18, 1929, The Iron Age see why the German credit balances never very large before the war, are now turned into deficits. Germany still ranks second the United States the production both pig iron and steel. But whereas 1913 England occupied third place both regards, and France only very bad fourth place, today France has easily passed Great Britain and surprisingly little behind Ger- many. can see reason, except perhaps the urgent pressure reparations payments, for German retention second rank the output pig iron for more than few years now. Her hold the finished steel industry far more secure, since the factor ore cost weighs less and less the product more and more highly finished. Prospects Central and Eastern Europe central and eastern Europe there are only three countries that seem require consideration from the standpoint international coal and iron trade, and each these limited one way other, that can never reach the levels attained the United States, Great Britain, Germany France. First among the three future possibility Rus- sia, where even misrule cannot always cover the fact that the Donetz Basin had large coal reserves and suffi- cient iron ore reserves present possibilities becoming some day very serious mining and manufacturing re- gion. The deficiency there has always been the relative lack transportation and the poverty the local mar- kets. The outputs for all Russia have just been pub- lished for two recent half-years below, all metric tons: Oct. 1-March 31, Oct. 1-March 31, 1927-28 1928-29 18,503,000 19,744,000 Rolled products ........ 1,702,000 1,874,000 will seen that while pig iron output increased almost per cent for the year, coal output increased less than per cent, which the Soviet report expressly states was due certain lowering working discipline the coal fields.” Poland and Czechoslovakia, both remade countries, pre- sent certain possibilities and serious differences. Poland has secured coal excess her manufacturing needs probabilities, and this coal now depressing the German coal trade all the Baltic region. Czechoslovakia, the best balanced the new countries, has sufficient coal important, enough iron ore use, and finishing plants relatively large scale, that the mine and furnace out- put readily absorbed nationally without affecting any international markets basal products. Diesel Engine Heads Wrought Iron Joined with Copper Many breakages have occurred lower cylinder heads double-acting marine Diesel engines. apparently impossible arrange valve openings symmetrically, and temperature strains induced are too much for the best cast iron resist. alternative successful design was described recent- Sass the Institution Engineers and Ship- builders Scotland. consists assembling the com- plicated head with all its passages from pieces wrought iron plate, tubes and angles. After these were tightly held together suitable clamps, the proper amount copper was wired each joint, and the as- sembly heated hydrogen atmosphere 1200 deg. Final cooling required hr. The method similar the “coppering” process described length THE IRON AGE, May 10, 1928. Mr. Sass said the method had long been used for building diaphragms the turbine depart- ment the German General Electric works (A.E.G.). | | | q | Pulverized Coal Steel Application Powdered Fuel Metallurgical Work Outlined—Both Melting and Reheating Furnaces Served WILLIAM RENKIN* coal plants installed connection with the iron and steel industry this country. These pulverized coal plants supply fuel about 2500 furnaces the following types: Puddling and busheling furnaces Wrought iron pile and faggot heating furnaces Ingot, slab, billet and rod-heating furnaces Forge heating furnaces Rail reheating furnaces Continuous heating furnaces Open-hearth furnaces Sheet and pair furnaces Open and box annealing furnaces Malleable iron melting furnaces. the paper the author has given information regard- ing results being secured, rather than describe equip- ment. The paper divided into nine sections: sketch pulverized coal metallurgical work, giving credit Lord and Culliney, who did the pioneer work this branch the industry. 2—Types furnaces using pulverized coal, giving some descriptive data. costs per ton product, giving some data the preparation costs well relative costs per ton steel heated with various fuels, such as: Hand firing with bituminous coal: producer-gas firing (bituminous fuel oil firing; natural-gas firing; by-product coke oven gas firing and curve chart showing the relative B.t.u. procurable for one cent. 4—Type equipment required, giving general descrip- tion pulverized coal plant operation rather than have been approximately 200 pulverized equipment details. 5—Advantages pulverized coal firing, listing under points the advantages and benefits derived using pulverized coal. efficiencies being secured, giving some data from 7—Elimination early difficulties, describing some the early installation troubles and explaining methods overcoming them, found experience. 8—Comparative outputs with different fuels, giving some examples results obtained. 9—Conclusion, giving some general information and com- parative fuel costs. Some the particular furnace applications are dis- cussed the following paragraphs: Iron Blast Furnaces Considerable work has been done the blast furnace branch the industry, but difficulty has been encountered getting the pulverized coal burn and not pre- cipitate. has been found possible feed the pulver- ized coal directly into the proper part the blast furnace, thus overcoming, believed, the mechanical difficulties which have heretofore prevented proper injection the coal. Introduction fuel having known analysis directly the melting zone will, doubt, prove tinct advantage correcting errors mix immediately, instead after some hours, present practice. Air Furnaces There are many malleable iron plants melting done with pulverized coal, and the furnates for such fuel have been developed very high stage *Combustion Engineering Corporation, New York. This Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers the annual meeting and exhibition, held Pittsburgh. efficiency. the plant which holds the fuel-ratio record the United States, 3.8 lb. iron melted with each pound pulverized coal fed the furnace, 7,430,700 the fuel each 2000 iron melted. The proximate analysis the coal used this plant is: Per Cent Volatile matter........... 34.8 59.0 0.7 Sulphur, separately deter- mined, less than...... 1.0 addition the exceptionally good fuel-ratio se- cured fine grinding and proper drying, combined with efficient burner arrangement, there has been noticed decided improvement the elimination carbon and sulphur additions the bath. Practically all air used for c