Manufactures, the Third Book of the Great American Industries Series

Baan ys ae aan et slay andy ei sleeve) mipsel ake Aa AES LEADS roy Wk en 5c Sy ‘ Nida, Sandy Wea ye MSN, Boies “MANUFACTURES — The Great American Industries Series by W. F. Rocheleau Revised Edition 1928 A. FLANAGAN COMPANY CHICAGO ae e TNR PM NMVELLUR Wj DUP. 1 je i INDIANA, PENNA? =. PREFACE The World War taught us the value of our great industries and their interdependence. From the earth we obtain food, through which life is sustained, minerals that supply us with heat and power, and raw material for our manufac- tures. But without transportation these neces- sities could not be distributed where they are needed, and we should have no commerce. The boys and girls ot today are the industrial workers of the future, and industrial subjects should receive due attention in their education. It is most essential that all Americans have a proper knowledge of their country’s resources. The books of the Great American Industries Series — “Minerals,” “Products of the Soil,” “Manufactures,” “Transportation” and “Farm Animals and Farm Crops’’—supply this necessary information in a non-technical but instructive manner. eed Great American Industries Minerals Products of the Soil Manufactures Transportation Farm Animals and Farm Crops ’ Published by A. Flanagan Company CONTENTS Morors GLASS LEATHER Boors AND SHOES Dressep Mrat Pins AND NEEDLES, PENCILS AND PENS PAPER PRINTING NEWSPAPERS Booxs . 138 156 184 208 8 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES the materials and forces around him to enable him to add to his comfort and happiness. Sticks and stones were probably the first tools used. Man discovered in the course of time that he could so wield these as to increase his power in. overcoming obstacles. The stick served as a lever, and the stone as a weight. After a while he fastened these together and had a hammer with the stone for the head and the stick for the handle. Many stones shaped for such hammers have been found in caves and other places where men lived before the days of civilization. Our first parents also learned that it was easier to walk up a gentle slope than to lift themselves over a precipice, or climb a tree. They made use of this knowledge in raising great weights, and we have the inclined plane as the next mechanical device found useful. Fur- ther study led to the discovery, that, if a lever be arranged so as to move around a fixed point of support, its action becomes continuous. This crude arrangement grew into the wheel attached to an axle, and was the forerunner of the modern machine known as the wheel and axle. The pulley, the wedge, and the screw were each like- wise developed from man’s necessity. Each was discovered in the attempt of the race to master difficulties, and make a more extensive use of the forces and objects with which they were sur- rounded. MOTORS 9 These few simple contrivances are known as the mechanical powers, or elements of machines, because one or more of them is found in every tool and machine that has ever been constructed? However complicated a machine may be, and however wonderful and delicate its work may appear, we must always remember that it is an ingenious combination of the elements of machin- ery, so modified and adjusted as to fit them for doing the particular work for which that machine was intended. Domestic animals were probably used before simple tools were combined into machines. We read, in the Old Testament and other books that tell us about the customs of ancient people, that they used animals for treading out the grain on the threshing-floor, and in tilling the soil. The ass and the camel are mentioned as beasts of burden by these early writers. The invention of the wheel is older than his- tory. We can not trace civilization back far enough to discover its origin. The earliest accounts of the Egyptians speak of their war chariots, and the ancient Greeks were acquainted with the elements of machines long before the building of the Parthenon, which was nearly 500 B.c. The first use of the wheel was undoubtedly for raising water, the power being supplied by men treading on the circumference. At a very early date water wheels were used IO GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES for grinding corn, and both wind and water were probably used to turn machinery before domes- tic animals were employed for the same purpose. At the present time it would seem that we had discovered every available force which nature has given us for operating machinery. For con- venience we will study this subject under the fol- lowing heads: The Power of Domestic Animals, The Power of Water, The Power of the Atmos- phere, The Power of Steam, The Power of Elec- tricity. | DOMESTIC ANIMALS As already stated, the first use of domestic animals was probably in treading out grain on the threshing-floor, and carrying burdens. From this beginning it was quite easy to invent the yoke and train the animal to haul the load instead of carrying it. If the ox could haul a cart, why not a plow or a drag? Guided by such reasoning the agriculturist soon made the ox and the ass his chief means of support. It seems that the horse was for centuries regarded as an aristocrat. He carried his master on all occa- sions of public ceremony, bore him in battle, or, hitched to the war chariot, dashed at the enemy in the deadly charge, but he stands aloof from domestic service. The transition from a straight to a circular path for the yoked animal was very natural, and ON Pe Key: MOTORS | "a we find the ox turning the wheel-as well as hauling the cart. Such a device is called a sweep, and only a few years ago it was in quite common use, but now is nearly entirely supplanted by the engine. Sweeps were most frequently seen in small brickyards, where a horse furnished the power for grinding the clay; at small shafts where they were used for raising coal, and in the grainfields where they were so arranged that horse power was used for running large threshers. They were also frequently used for operating small elevators. In all these arrangements a system of gearing, or bolts and pulleys, changes the slow motion of the animal to the speed required for the work of the machine. In case of the threshing ma- chine the power was so arranged as to employ six or more horses at a time. But the horse power threshing machine is now entirely sup- planted by the engine driven machine. The treadmill is a later device for using ani- mal power in operating machinery, and these machines were formerly much in use in local- ities having small farms. The most common form of the treadmill, known as the horse power, consists of a series of narrow planks, called lags, fastened at each end of a chain belt which passes over pulleys at the ends of the machine. The forward pulley is considerably the larger, so that the lags form an inclined plane. The whole arrange- {2 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES ment moves on rollers so adjusted as to have as little friction as possible. When in use the for- ward end of the power is elevated from twelve to eighteen inches, as this increases the effective working. A frame from three and a-half to four feet high incloses the sides and forward end so as to keep the animal, usually a horse, from stepping off. The motive power of the treadmill here described is caused by the weight of the animal, and is equal to the force required to haul him up the incline formed by the lags. As the platform upon which he stands begins to move backward, the horse steps forward. One - step leads to another, and the horse is soon walk- ing up this moving plane at his usual gait. The speed is regulated by the work done, or by a brake upon the fly wheel connected with the power. These machines are made for one and two horses, and are very convenient and efficient. They are easily moved, occupy but small space, and utilize nearly all the power developed. They are used for threshing grain on small farms, sawing wood, and cutting ensilage. Smaller patterns are sometimes made for light work, such as churning, running cream sepa- rators, and turning grindstones. The power in these is usually furnished by a sheep or a large dog. Another sort of treadmill consists of a large — wow MOTORS | 13 circular platform fastened to a vertical shaft passing through its center. The platform is inclined, and the horse is so tethered that he walks up the incline. This device was used formerly to some extent in grain elevators, but was not very satisfactory. WATER WHEELS Water wheels are structures for using the weight and pressure of water in running machin- ery. They were probably man’s first successful attempt to use the forces of nature for this -pur- pose. For ages they were huge and crude affairs, yet they were a great advance over any- thing that had preceded them; they have served their purpose well, and occupy an important place in the industrial history of the world. The first device for making use of the power of water to produce rotary motion was a very simple one, but it involved the principle employed in nearly all the motors that followed. The modern rotary lawn sprinkler is its best representative. Water was let into a long, vertical tube mounted on a central axis. Two or more arms extended from the bottom of this tube in a horizontal direction. There was a small hole at the outer end of each arm, and these holes were so made that the water flowed from all in the same direction. Water was poured into the large tube, and the reaction of the air upon the streams flowing 14 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES from the arms caused the machine to revolve quite rapidly. This device, however, could not utilize enough pewer to make it practical, hence it was scarcely more than a scientific toy. The water wheels in practical use are known as the overshot, undershot, breast and turbine wheels. The overshot wheel furnished. the power for nearly all the saw and grist mills, machine shops and factories in the country for a OVERSHOT WHEEL long time after it was settled. Without it our forefathers would have suffered even greater hardships than fell to their lot, for it made possi- ble the operation of a mill wherever = small stream could be dammed. The settlers har- nessed the numerous mountain streams, and made them perform their hardest tasks, and at MOTORS 15 the present time these wheels may be seen occa- sionally in the hilly country of the eastern States. This style of water wheel was always the largest wheel in the mill, and its size depended upon the volume of water which could: be obtained and the power required. In the ordinary coun- try mill or shop, the wheel would be from six- teen to twenty feet in diameter; but in large factories they have been constructed with a diameter of seventy-five and even ninety feet. One of these old wheels may have suggested the famous Ferris Wheel to its inventor; who _knows? The width of the rim varied with the diameter. A twenty-foot wheel would usually be from six to eight feet wide. The rim is made into a series of buckets or, more correctly speaking, troughs which extend across its entire width. These buckets are so arranged that the water which strikes the wheel at the top fills them at the same time that the current pushes against the side of the one it strikes, and tends to push it along and so turn the wheel. The full buckets are on the falling side of the wheel, and empty themselves when they have reached the lowest point in the circumference. The motive power is in the weight of water in the buckets, and the current adds a little to the effective force. This wheel can be used where there is a good, fall of water, and often does excellent work with only Z 16 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES a small stream. Its motion is steady and uni- form, and it was the standard motor until the steam engine and the turbine replaced it. The undershot wheel has floats in the place of buckets. It is so arranged that the water strikes it at the bottom, and the power is derived from the force of the current against the floats. It is designed for streams having a large volume of water and slight fall. Its successful operation UNDERSHOT WHEEL requires a very strong current, as it utilizes only a small portion of the power. The breast wheel is the result of an attempt to. improve the undershot, with which it is identical in construction; the difference lies in the method of applying the power. In the breast wheel the water is let on just below the axis and the floats move from this point to the lowest point in their rotation in a water-tight box, so that the weight Piers MOTORS eee of the water is added to the force of the current. This increases the power over that of the under- shot wheel, but does not make it equal to that of the overshot. The turbine wheel is a return to first principles on an improved plan. It utilizes the reaction of the current as the first described device did. The difference is that the modern wheel is inclosed in a tight box so that the entire force of the water is used. Turbines revolve upon a vertical axis, and are known as_ horizontal wheels. The wheel is _ usually set at the low- est possible level so.as ‘to give it the greatest fall of water. The wa- ' ter is carried through a vertical tube called the “penstock.” Just before it passes out to the wheel it is forced between spiral partt- PLAN OF THE TURBINE WHEEL tions which give it a rotary motion. As it leaves the “penstock”’ it comes in contact with the floats on the wheel which are so arranged as to turn the current in the opposite direction from what it is flowing. The reaction of the current together with the weight of the water in the “penstock”’ furnishes the motive power. 18 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Turbines differ from other wheels in having the water strike all the floats continually when they are in motion. The wheels are small, usu- ally being only a few feet in diameter, but their construction is so perfect © that they utilize nearly all the power which the water supplies. They are very efficient, and are found in all shops and factories where water power can be used. There . are several different pat- terns of turbine, but all work on the same princi- A TURBINE WHEEL ple. The water supply is regulated bysa-. gate, and, as this varies with the speed, most wheels in large factories have the gate connected with a machine called the governor, which so regu- lates the supply of power as to keep the motion steady and the speed uniform. The largest turbines in the world are at Niag- ara, where a portion of the great cataract has been turned to the operation of machinery. A brief description will give some idea of what has been attempted and accomplished in the con- struction of this plant. A canal draws the water from the river about a mile above the falls on the American side. The. wheels are set at the MOTORS 19 bottom of a pit 178 feet deep, and 140 long, and 18 wide. From the lower end of this pit, a tunnel was constructed connecting with the river below the falls. The tunnel is about a mile and a quarter in length. There is room in the pit for ‘ten turbines. Each wheel is double, that is, there are two wheels, one above the other on the same axis; each is rated at 5,000 horse power. They are employed in generating electricity for use in cities situated a long distance from the falls. Dynamos are attached to the vertical shaft of the wheel so as to form a cap over the pit. The cur- rent operates machinery and street cars in Buf- falo and has been carried as far as New York City and been successfully used for operating light machines. Another pattern of water wheel which is very effective where a small stream with high pressure can be obtained, is a small iron wheel with cup- shaped buckets on its circumference. The water issues from a nozzle so placed that the stream strikes the lowest bucket horizontally. These wheels are usually known as water motors. Under high pressure 100 horse power has been attained with a stream an inch in diameter. The invention of these various patterns of water wheels shows that wheels have been devised to enable us to use the power of water for operating machinery under almost every con- dition in which it may be-founa. 20 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES WINDMILLS Windmills are undoubtedly of much later origin than water wheels. In the early part of this century a German professor made a thor- ough study of the history of this invention. The earliest date having reference to the use of the windmill was 818 a.v. The record shows that ~ these mills were used in Bohemia at this time. — ‘The mill is again mentioned in writings of 1105 and 1143 aA.D., but no authentic information about their construction is found until a much later date. It seems to have been much more difficult for men to utilize the power of the air with its ever-shifting currents than it was to ™ harness the stream confined within its own banks. Be this as it may, windmills have been in use for a number of centuries, and are more generally employed now than ever before. A windmill has four essential parts: the wind wheel, the axis which communicates the power, the necessary wheels and pulleys for transmit- ting the power to the machinery, and the frame work which supports the structure. Nearly all patterns of windmills have a vertical wind wheel mounted on a horizontal axis, as this arrange- ment gives by far the best results. In the old- style mill with a large wheel used for grinding grain, the wheel is inclined so that the surface which the wind strikes has a slightly upward : | MOTORS a slant. This arrangement has some advantage over that of the strictly vertical wheel. _ The wind wheels have four arms arranged at right angles to each other, and have a length of OLD-FASHIONED WINDMILL thirty or forty feet. These arms are called “whips,” and are either a single shaft containing pins on which canvas can be fastened, or strong frames with slats that serve for floats against 22 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES which the wind strikes. In either case the width ~ of the whip increases from the center toward the circumference of the wheel. If canvas forms the resisting surface, it is fastened to the arm in the form of aspiral. If slats are used, they are ~ so arranged as to form an angle of about 60 degrees with the wind, and are placed far enough ~ apart to allow the current of air to readily Pass between them. The reaction of the wind against the whips _ curns the wheel, and this sets the machinery in motion. You see that the principle is just the same as that used with the water wheel, and the difference in the two machines is simply in their construction. Each wheel is so built as to adapt it to the conditions under which it is used. The speed and power of the windmill depend upon the velocity of the wind, and this also determines the amount of “sail” which the wind wheel needs to carry. The wind wheel must also face the wind, so it is mounted on a revolving frame, or dome, which allows it to face in any direction. Some of the mills have rudders which enable them to adjust themselves, while others have to be turned by hand. An adjustment of the canvas, called the “sail,” is also necessary to enable the mill to maintain a uniform speed and power with wind of varying velocity. Holland especially is the land of the old-fash- MOTORS E ioned windmill. Here for centuries it has been a faithful servant, grinding the corn and pump- ing the water from her low marshes over the ed |=. eT MODERN WINDMILL dykes into the sea, and reclaiming thousands of acres from the grasp of Old Ocean. The modern windmill is a modification of the machine already described. The wind wheel seldom exceeds six or eight feet in diameter. Ci get 24 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES and is made of slats radiating from the center, and fastened to a light iron frame. [Each slat might be called a whip, though it more properly takes the place of the, sail. These slats areso arranged as to react against the current which blows freely between them. Most of these mills are mounted upon light wooden or iron frames pyramidal in form, and from thirty to fifty feet in height. They are light structures, easily oper- ated, and very useful in pumping water, turning grindstones, and operating other light machin- ery; but they do not afford sufficient power for heavy work like grinding grain. Many patterns of these mills are found in the agricultural dis- tricts of the central and western States. THE STEAM ENGINE Water wheels and windmills deal with the forces of nature directly as they are found. This, however, is not the case with the steam engine and the electric motor. Since steam is the form which water takes when heated to the boiling point, we employ the agent heat to pre- pare the water for the engine. The working of the engine depends upon the tendency of vapors and gases to fill all the space in which they are placed. If confined within a small space they exert great force, and this is employed in oper- ating machinery. When a drop of water becomes steam, it occu- PePeerit hs CULLEGE Lig se INDIANA, PENNA eons es ae pies 1,700 times as much space as it did before. If this steam be heated to a temperature above the boiling point, it will occupy still more space. Take a small vial with a few drops of water in it, and tightly cork it and then proceed to boil the water, pointing the mouth of the vial away from you. Ina few moments the cork will blow out with a sharp report, like that of a small pistol. If the cork can not be blown out, and you keep on heating the steam, the vial will burst. The steam engine is a device for using this power of steam in operating machinery. The first attempt to make use of the power of steam is accredited to Hero of Alexandria, 130 p.c.. Hero constructed a hollow copper ball, mounted upon. two hollow trunnions which served for an axis. These trunnions were con- nected with a closed kettle and conveyed the steam to the ball. Upon opposite sides of the ball were tubes extending at right angles to the axis. Each tube had a small hole in the side at ‘ts farther end. These holes were so made that the escaping steam would react upon the air and thus move the machine. Thus you see that this device was very much like the old reaction water- mill, and they both employed the same principle, that of reaction of acurrent against the aivs Hero’s engine was merely a toy, but if called attention to the fact that steam might sometime be used as a motive power. 26 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES It seems that nothing was done with Hero’s discovery for many centuries, as the next account of the steam engine bears the date of 1629 A.D. This account states that the engine consisted of a steam boiler in the shape of a woman’s head, and the steam was forced from the mouth through a tube against the buckets of a wheel resembling the water motor in present use. The account further states that work was actually performed by this contrivance. The beginnings which led to the steam engine in its present form are due to two Englishmen, Thomas Newcomen and James Watt. New- comen’s contrivance was a combination of the pressure of the air and the power of steam to work a steam-tight piston up and down in a cyl- inder. The steam forced the piston up, and was then condensed by having a stream of cold water turned on the cylinder. The pressure of the air then forced the piston down. The piston- rod was joined to a walking-beam which had its opposite end joined to the piston of a pump. The valves necessary to keep the machine in motion had to be worked by hand, anda boy was engaged to attend to them. He had to make fourteen changes a minute, but it seems that he was able to study his machine and think while at work. One day he astonished his employers by leaving his engine and running off to play. The wonder was that the engine kept on working just r= ri a ee fee MOTORS 27 as well as when the boy was there. This boy’s name was Humphrey Potter. When Hum- ‘phrey’s employer entered the engine room, he expected to find some of his workmen tending the valves. What was his surprise to discover that Humphrey had arranged a contrivance of sticks and strings so as to enable the walking- beam to open and close the valves; and his work was so well done that the engine became self- acting. Thus to a boy is due the credit for inventing one of the most important devices of the modern engine, that for automatically work- ing the valves. Watt so changed and improved Newcomen’s machine that he is generally considered the inventor of the engine as it is to-day. He per- fected his machine in 1769, and from that time the uses of the steam engine have constantly increased. . On first inspection, the modern steam engine appears to be a very complex machine, but fur- ther acquaintance soon convinces one that the parts are comparatively few and quite simple. The essential parts are the steam chest, cylinder, piston and piston rod, valves, connecting rod, shaft, fly wheel and governor. The piston fits into the cylinder steam-tight. The steam chest Pnox.on the top or,side of the cylinder into which the steam is admitted when it comes from the boiler. Openings from this chest lead to 28 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES each end of the cylinder. A valve works back and forth over these openings so as to admit the steam first at one end and then at the other; there are also openings from the cylinder into the port, or escape pipe, through which the STEAM CHEST AND CYLINDER M, pipe from boiler. S, steam chest. R, eccentric rod working valve. A and B, pipes which conduct steam to the cylinder, C. N, escape pipe. The piston is in the middle of the cylinder, moving toward C, steam escapes after being used. The valves are so arranged that when the passage is open from the steam chest to one end of the cylinder, that leading to the escape pipe is closed, and vice versa. By this arrangement the expansive force of the steam drives the piston back and forth MOTORS 29 from one end of the cylinder to the other. By means of the connecting rod and crank this sli- ding motion is changed to a rotary motion in the shaft. A belt connects the fly wheel with the shafting that turns the machinery. The auto- matic action of the valves is secured by attach- ments to the shaft of the fly wheel. In some of the largest engines the fly wheel is toothed and fits to a pinion on the main shaft of the machin- ery. Most stationary engines have but one piston and crank, but some very large ones have two. This does not alter the principle of action, how- ever. In case of a double engine we simply have two engines working in one. The fly wheel is usually very heavy, so as to give uniformity and steadiness to the motion. The governor is an ingenious device for regulating the amount of steam supplied to the cylinder. This is so care- fully adjusted that it responds to the slightest change in speed, and in this way keeps the motion uniform. The length of the cylinder varies from the diameter of the piston to twice that length. The horse power is the unit for measuring the force exerted by the steam engine. A horse power is a force that will raise a weight of 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute. Hence the measure is estimated in foot-pounds. If an engine had a piston ten inches in diameter, its 30 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES area would be a little over 78.5 square inches. With a pressure of steam of 100 pounds to the square inch the piston would be driven with a force of 7,850 pounds. If the cylinder be one foot in length, this movement will represent 7,850 foot-pounds. Now if the movement is rapid enough to cause fifty revolutions of the fly wheel per minute, the force exerted by the engine will be equal to 7,850 foot-pounds multi- plied by 100, the number of movements the piston makes, or 785,000 pounds. This divided by 33,000 will give the horse power. How much sit? It is not strange that a machine which can exert so much force in so small a space should be modified in size, form, and pattern to meet all requirements. Hence we find engines of all sizes from the tiny toy to the monster that pro- pels a steamship, and each is so delicately adjusted that the weight of a child’s hand can control it. The boiler is an important part of the engine, as the success of the machine depends upon the quantity and quality of the steam furnished. There must be a constant pressure of sufficient strength to enable the engine to do its work, and the steam must be what engineers term “dry”; that is, free from moisture. As this condition can be attained only at a temperature consider- ably above the boiling point of water, such a ie ns fs ae 5 fas MOTORS 31 temperature must be maintained. The dome which you see on all boilers, is for the purpose of furnishing a chamber for dry steam. From this dome it passes to the steam chest, and thence to the cylinder. Water must be supplied to the boiler as fast as it is taken up by the escaping steam. Should the water in the boiler get below the level of the pipes, or flues, as they are called, the intense heat would change the steam into oxygen and hydrogen gases, and set the hydrogen on fire. Whenever this happens, the boiler, building, and engineer are distributed about the town in which the accident occurs. Nearly all violent explosions of steam boilers are caused in this way. Most boilers are tubular, having a large number of flues passing through their entire length. The water surrounds these, and the fire passes through them. By this means the largest heated surface possible is presented to the water, and steam is made rapidly. By visiting any fac- tory having a stationary engine, all the parts here described can be seen, except the valves which are inside the steam chest. It would be a pleasant and profitable excursion to visit an engine and study its working. Besides steam engines, we now have numerous patterns of gas engines and air engines. The motive power of the gas engine is furnished by the explosion of gas in the cylinder, the explo- 32 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. sion being caused by an electric spark. Ordinary illuminating gas or that made from gasoline may furnish the power. These engines require neither — boiler nor fire. They can also be run without the special attention of an engineer. The gaso- line engine has been brought to a high degree of perfection, and engines of this type exceeding one GASOLINE ENGINE hundred horsepower are now found, but are used chiefly for propelling motor boats of large size. But these engines are equally capable of adapta- tion to conditions where high speed and light power are required. Different types of gaso- line engines are constructed for operating light machinery for small motor boats, especially for propelling automobiles and aeroplanes, and the success of each of these is due largely to the perfection of this kind of an engine. sink ” Ryle ae es al a sl ete re a ee eee Geoe, DEp’T = PERMANENT CoLhs MOTORS 33 THE ELECTRIC MOTOR The electric motor is another device for using power a long distance from its source. An elec- tric motor is in no sense a generator of power. The electric current which constitutes the pro- pelling force is generated either by water or steam power operating a machine called a dynamo. The current is transmitted to the motor by cables of either copper or aluminum wire. These cables are usually encased in rub- ber to prevent the escape of the electricity through the air. The motor consists of a power- ful magnet surrounded by coils of wire so arranged that the electric current causes a rapid rotation of the magnet. Most motors of this class are constructed for light work, but those for operating electric railways are as powerful as large steam engines, sometimes having a hun- dred and even a thousand horse power. The electric motor has two advantages over Burer motors. [he current can be carried a long distance without losing much of its force, hence water power can be effectively used many miles from its location. The plant at Niagara, which has already been described, is the best illustration of this advantage on a large scale. The second advantage is in the even distribution of power over a large factory. Instead of long rows of shafting all connected with a large 34 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES engine, and which use a good deal of its power, the engine can be used to run a dynamo and the current be carried to various parts of the fac- tory. The power thus goes directly from the ~ electric motor to the machine, or group of E machines to be operated. In this way power is — saved, and the factory is spared the inconve- nience of shutting down the entire plant for nec- essary repairs in any particular department. Along with the invention and perfection of — these motors have come many curious and won- derful machines by which we are able to use elec- tricity to the best possible advantage. The effect — of machinerv upon the labor and manufactories. of the world during the past fifty years has been such as to completely revolutionize nearly all branches of business, and is so great in other particulars that it is nearly if not quite impossible to estimate it. Someone has estimated that the work done by steam power alone is equal to that of one billion men, or more than three times the working population of the earth. Besides this there is the great power exerted by the water already in use, and not over one fifth of. the water power of the world has been employed. Thousands of streams and waterfalls are still waiting their opportunity to send comfort and cheer to millions of people on the farms and in towns and villages. It is by the wise use of these forces and inven- ) MOTORS hy tions that we are enabled to have so many pleas- ant things in our homes, keep ourselves comfort- able with such good and tasteful clothing, and enjoy books and papers, and other pleasures which only a few years ago were considered as luxuries by the most wealthy. All useful inven- tions tend to make our necessities better and cheaper, and to give us more leisure to enjoy what is best and noblest in life. We read in the Bible that the Lord made man in His own likeness, and gave him power over all the earth. By centuries of toil and study God has led us to discover more and more of the forces and secrets of nature. It would seem at first thought that all has been discovered, but each year brings to light some new power or property that is for the advantage of the people. The discoveries and inventions of the new cen- tury will undoubtedly far exceed, in both number and ingenuity, those of the century just closed. It would seem that the prophecy of one of our poets in his “Song of Steam” was about to be realized :— Hurrah! hurrah! the waters o’er The mountain’s steep decline; Time—space—have yielded to my power; The world—the world is mine. * * * * * I carry the wealth and the lord of earth, The thoughts of his godlike mind; 36 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES The wind lags after my going forth, The lightning is left behind. In the darksome depths of the fathomless mine My tireless arm doth play, Where rocks never saw the sun decline, Or dawn of the glorious day. I bring earth’s glittering jewels up From the hidden caves below, « And make the fountain’s granite cup With a crystal gush o’erflow. I blow the bellows, I forge the steel, In all the shops of trade; I hammer the ore, ‘and turn the wheel Where all my arms of strength are made; I manage the furnace, the mill, the mint, I carry, I spin, I weave; And all my doings I put into print On every Saturday eve. I have no muscles to weary, no breast to decay No bones to-be “‘laid on the shelf,’’ And soon I intend you shall go and play, While I manage this world myself. " 3 Es Me : _ 4 ~ ~ 3 Ds GLASS HISTORY Glass is so commonly used and in such a great variety of ways, that one rarely. ever stops to think of its history and of its im- mense value to man as a civilizing influence. Glass has a long and interesting history run- ning back seven thousand years or more. Something of the history, manufacture and uses of glass will be given in this chapter. If we were compelled to live in houses with- out glass windows, to use horns and gourds for drinking cups, and the skins of animals for bottles, it would require some time for us to become accustomed to our new surroundings. Yet there are countries where these condi- tions still exist, and they were common among all civilized nations until glass came into general use. Glass comes from an Anglo-Saxon word, géaes, or the Latin g/esum, each meaning amber, a sub- stance found on the shores of the Baltic and North seas. Amber is a gum which has been for 37 38 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES ages buried in the sands of these shores, and is called fossilized. It often contains insects im- bedded in it, in a perfect state of preservation. Amber is of a yellowish color, nearly transpar- ent, and when polished is very beautiful. ~Glass is an artificial compound which in every partic- ular except color closely resembles amber, hence its name. The Roman writer, Pliny, tells us that ages ago some mariners landed en the coast of Pales- tine, on the banks of a small river, and placed some blocks of nitrum (soda) under their pots to keep them up from the fire, and that these blocks, being fused with the sand by the fire, produced a_ liquid and transparent stream. Pliny thinks this was the beginning of glass- making, but his story is not generally believed, as it would have been impossible for the heat of an open fire to fuse the material necessary to make glass. The story, however, shows an attempt by this celebrated writer to account for the origin of an art which had been brought toa good degree of perfection in his time. Some one has said, “The history of glass- making would embrace a period commencing 5000 B.c. and running down to the very doors of to-day.’ But it is doubtful whether anyone has ever found the exact year when glass-making began. There is abundant evidence that this is one of the oldest of the arts. Paintings on the “ea GLASS Suede walls of an Egyptian tomb dating from 3000 B.c. show Theban glass-blowers at work with nearly the same style of blow pipe as that used by those of the present day. In another tomb a necklace bead of crown glass was found inscribed with the name of a queen who reigned 1500 B.c.; and in the British Museum is a bottle of light blue glass on which are painted in yellow the name and titles of the Pharaoh of that time. Many ornaments imitating the precious stones in color and beauty show that the Egyptians of this early date had brought the art of glass- making to a high degree of perfection. Histo- rians tell us that glass was used by them for drinking vessels, mosaic work, sacred emblems and even coffins, and that all these articles attest their skill in workmanship and show a brilliancy of color that has scarcely been excelled in mod- ern times. The ruins of other ancient cities of the East also reveal many traces of glass-making. Among these are Nineveh, Sidon, and Tyre of the Bible, besides many of the cities of the Greeks. The collection taken from the island of Cyprus by General Cesnola, and now in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, is of special interest, and shows that the ancient Greeks had acquired great skill in the manufacture of glass. The collection contains over 1,700 pieces of plain and ‘ornamental ware in great variety of form and 40 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES color, some of the vases and cups containing colors unknown at the present time. The Venetians early became the best glass- workers of Europe, and during the 13th century and for several hundred years following, they were. far in advance of other nations; ] ihe manufacture was confined to a small island near the city, and was liberally aided by the govern- ment. The workmen were also granted special privileges on account of the high degree of skill required in their art. It is probable that glass mirrors were first made here. Later the Bohe- mians attained superiority in the manufacture of white glass. From these countries the manu- facture moved slowly westward, first into France, then into England, where records show that glass-makers were taxed as early as 1300 A.D. The first mention of the use of glass for win- dows was about the close of the third century, and it is recorded that windows were first intro- duced into England in the latter part of the 7th century, and colored window glass is known to have been.used in churches during the 8th cen- tury; but the general use of window glass was delayed for several hundred years. Even in the 16th century in England and the 17th in Scotland only the dwellings of the wealthy were provided with glass. : While glass has been made for centuries and by all civilized nations, the process of manufac: : 7 t 2 ot A GLASS At ture and the materials used made it so expensive that it was regarded as a luxury, its use was lim- ited and confined to the wealthy classes until within comparatively recent times. The manufacture of glass was among the first industries attempted by the English colonists in America, but it is impossible to discover to what extent it was carried on before the Revolution. A history published in London, in 1776, men- tions the erection of glass works at Jamestown, Va., but their completion was prevented by the Indian massacre of 1722. Another history of this settlement states that some of the inhabi- tants had been engaged in the manufacture of glass as early as 1615. Works were also con- structed and operated near Salem, Mass., as early as 1639-40. The first mention of the glass industry in Pennsylvania is in a letter which William Penn wrote to the “Free Society of Traders” in 1683. In this letter he speaks of the glass works of the colony, but the location of these works has never been determined. Neither do we know what kind of glass they made. After the United States had gained their inde- pendence, and were free from the restrictions which England had placed on their manufac- tures and commerce, there was increased activity in all lines of industry. Several large glass fac- tories were soon in successful operation, and the number and size of such establishments have 42 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES been increased from year to year to meet the demands of the rapid development of the coun- try. At first the two great centers of the indus- try were around Boston and Pittsburg, Penn., but now glass factories are found in many local- ities. MANUFACTURE—I1. MATERIAL Glass is made by melting sand with lime, pot- ash, soda, or “oxide of lead sat a“ oreatY heat: Silica, which is the basis of sand, enters into all varieties of glass, and has more to do with deter- mining the quality than any of the other ingredi- ents. The purity of the ingredients and the proportion in which they are mixed also have much to do with the quality of the glass. Sand may be said to form the basis of the glass, consequently its clearness depends largely upon the quality of this ingredient. The propor- tion of silica varies in different kinds of glass. In lead glass it is from 42 to 60 per cent; plate contains about 79 per cent, and window glass about 70 per cent. The amount of silica usually determines the degree of hardness, though other substances have some effect upon this quality. Lead tends to make glass soft, and lime makes ityhard: : Nearly all the silica now used in the glass fac- tories is in the form of sand, though until within the last fifty years that°used for the best quali- [eg are Ts = GLASS 43 ties was produced by crushing and washing flint and quartz rock. This process was so expensive that it made the glass too costly for general use. Bohemian and a few other varieties of European glass are still made from silica obtained in this way, and the expense of Bohemian glass in this country restricts it to the homes of wealthy people. The quality and purity of sand are of the greatest importance, especially in the manufac- ture of glass of high grade. The most searching examination, and careful tests are made to determine the nature and extent of any impuri- ties which the sand may contain. These impur- ities are commonly oxide of iron (iron rust) alumina in the form of clay, loam, gravel, and decaying animal or vegetable matter. Most of these can be removed by burning and washing, but the iron, which is the most troublesome of all, can be removed only by the use of chemicals. Iron is the most dreaded because it discolors the glass and destroys its transparency. A propor- tion greater than one half of one per cent ren- ders the sand worthless for even the poorest quality of glass, and for the best qualities it must be entirely free from iron. The microscope affords the best means of detecting the impurities in sand, as a skillful observer can detect them by the shape of the particles. Still the only sure test, as with many 4a GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES other things, is by actual use, as sand from differ- ent localities having no apparent difference in quality will often produce different grades of glass. A yellow sand will sometimes make a clearer glass than one perfectly white, and no test except actual use will enable the manufac- turer to determine this fact. Much of the sand used in glass-making occurs in the form of sandstone, and is quarried in blocks. The stone soon crumbles on exposure to the air, or it can be easily crushed. Glass of an inferior quality is frequently made from sand found.near the mouths of rivers, or on the sea- shore. This was especially true of the glass made by the ancients. Probably the location of many of their factories was determined by depos- its of sand, and the advantages of seaport towns in giving a market for their wares. The most noted of these ancient sand deposits was that of the River Belus near Mount Carme! of Biblical fame. Glass was made in great quan-. tities from this sand by the Sidonians, ancient Greeks, and, later, by the Venetians. Every country of Europe in which glass is made has deposits of sand suitable for the purpose, but American sand is considered superior to all other. Some of the best deposits in this country are in Berkshire County, Mass.; Juniata County, Penn.; Hancock County, W. Va.; the valley of the Fox River, in Illinois; and at Crystal City, t i) , bs Cia ery sill alla GLASS 45 Mo. Large deposits are also found in many other localities. Most of the other ingredients of glass are known as alkalies. Any good chemistry will tell you that an alkali is one of a class of substances which turn vegetable yellows brown, form soaps when mixed with fats and oils, and salts when combined with acids. In general, alkalies have a bitter, pungent taste, and are exceedingly cor- rosive to the flesh. Soda, potash, ammonia, and lime are some of those in most common use. All of. these except lime can be obtained from vegetable products, as potash from wood ashes, soda from the ashes of seaweed, and ammonia from decaying vegetable matter. Lime occurs in limestone, and is extracted by burning. Lime, next to silica, is the most important ingredient of glass. It is found in nearly all kinds, with the exception of that in which lead is used, and this variety sometimes contains a small quantity. Lime imparts brilliancy and hardness to glass, and care must be taken to preserve the proper proportion, as too much will make the glass so brittle that it is not durable. The use of lime may be said to be one of the modern improvements in glass-making, and its introduction has greatly improved the quality of the product. Soda was undoubtedly the first alkali used in the manufacture of glass, as large quantities of 46 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES it in the form of sulphate and carbonate are found on the banks of the Nile. Ata later date it was obtained by leaching the ashes of sea- weed and evaporating the lye. At present it is made wholly from common salt, of which it is an important ingredient. The great soda works of the world are at Lancashire, England, and most of that used in the glass factories of the United~ States is brought from there. The general use of potash is of comparatively recent date, though it has probably been used to a small extent for several centuries. Potash is obtained from a mineral called carnallite, which is a compound of potash and magnesium, and from leaching wood ashes and evaporating the lye. The most of that obtained from wood now comes from Canada. The compound of lead used in glass is an oxide, and is usually known as red lead on account of its color. It is the same lead asis . used for the basis of red paint. Lead is used in those varieties of glass which require perfect transparency and a brilliant luster. While it makes a beautiful glass, it also makes it so soft that it is easily scratched, and needs to be han- dled with care. / Li LHe rACTORY The location of a glass factory is largely deter- mined by the presence of sand and fuel, as the ~ GLASS 47 expense of freighting these is very heavy. When the location is decided upon, the plan of the fac- tory must be determined. This will depend upon the product desired, for each factory is con- structed for its special work, and can not do any A GLASS FACTORY other. There are at least six kinds of glass, each requiring a special building and furnace for its production. These are bottle, crown, sheet, win- dow, plate, flint, and colored glass. The general principle upon which all glass furnaces are con- structed is the same; viz., to secure a great degree of heat from such fuel as will not affect 48 GREAT AMERICAN INDUSTRIES the material to be melted. For this reason gas is the only fuel that can be successfully used. The furnace occupies the center of the factory. Its form depends upon the plan for melting. If pots are to be used, the shape is usually conical, and a shelf is placed around the walls for the pots to rest upon. If the melting is