The Iron Age 1927-12-01: Vol 120 Iss 22

IRON ACE New York, December 1927 ESTABLISHED 1855 VOL. 120, No. Welded Steel for Motor Frames History the Application Induction Motors— Findings Costs Material, Labor, Inventory, Tool Room Expense and Overhead RAUDEBAUGH* motors) has one object view: build good product which can sold for enough more than costs make the business profitable. Simplified practice good, but the simplicity the present day motor extreme, illustrated the accompanying views. Principles design are common property. All the manufacturer, any manufacturer, has make these parts better and less cost than his com- petitors. Use welded steel construction place castings was considered the Lincoln Electric Co. 1921, be- cause the practice promised reduce manufacturing costs. Every other manufacturer used castings; also used them. The finest way the world not beat your competitor’s cost follow his method manu- facture. Trying beat foundry’s cost with another manufacturer (including those electric *Chief cost accounting section, Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland. Welded Steel Motor Frame and, Right, Cast Iron Motor Frame foundry poor business. Back 1912 had replaced cast iron starter case with one made welded steel, saving good percentage, and since 1921 there was plenty encouragement for cost reduction programs, started into welded steel construction that time. The frame offered the best possibility saving, be- cause the frame the heaviest casting used in- duction motor. one had ever built motor frame welding together pieces hot rolled steel into the equivalent casting, and few believed that could done economically. Main Frame Bent Home Made Roll The idea rolling structural angles, welding the ends together, and then joining two rings cross mem- bers appeared the logical solution. The foot, base, was simple matter plate construction. The first rings were made outside anglesmith shop, and the first welded steel frame cost more than Above Views Show Evolution Base Rails. Rough casting left cost $5.21; welded sub- stitute right $3.04 Left—End Bracket Cast Iron, Being Somewhat Complicated Shape, Costs Only Per Cent Welded Part 1507 — 7 Fa } H cast frame, which was not good. Then the problem be- came one cutting the corners manufacturing meth- ods get the most out the new method construc- tion. The steel shapes certainly cost less than the cast iron. Two cents per pound for steel angle iron against 6c. per pound for rough casting looked good, par- ticularly view the fact that steel only one-half the weight would required. The superior physical properties and lower cost gave steel six one ad- vantage start with. could avoid spending all the material-saving fabricating labor, the problem was solved. Rolling the rings the anglesmith shop was the most expensive operation. went after that item first. worm and gear mechanism from old ele- vator hoist was rigged roll the rings hot, and heating furnace installed. hole was punched one leg the angle iron near the end and pin provided the roll that the angle was held against one roll during the operation. The second roll was held against the angle lever mechanism. Rolling 4-in. angle the outside ordinary methods had cost $18. The same job the above described machinery was done cost $4.47, including labor, material and overhead. This saving brought point where welded frames were possible. The next move was eliminate intermediate steps some the other operations and speed the whole job up. Buying material from the steel warehouse cut size cost 3c. per pound; changed and bought steel from the mill 2c. per pound deliv- ered Cleveland and made dies cut one our power presses. This brought the material cost, cut size and ready assemble welding, down from $18.21 $13.67 what call “type IL” frame. The labor cost assembly and welding started off $4.15. increasing the welding heat and speed, this figure was brought down $2.80. Since cost reduction necessarily continuous process, there given herewith tabulated history the cost reductions made several sizes frames. The present cost these frames represents evo- lution manufacturing methods made effort find the best and least expensive way doing the job. have long since given the idea that there any permanently best way doing any job. The most that can said any manufacturing method that rep- resents the best know the present time, and are reasonably certain that some them will obsolete before long. should also emphasized that these welded frames have inaugurated definite improvements the electrical assembly and operating characteristics the motors. This matter was described length THE AGE, July 1925. The next castings studied were the base rails. never did like the cast iron ones for the reason History of Cost Reduction on Motor Frames Jan., 1924, Jan., 1925 Cast (Rings Rolled Jan., Iron Outside Plant) 1926 Jan., 1927 FP $37.35 $57.38 $23.86 M $8.68 4.57 7.54 $20.79 L 4.58 oO 7.56 $21.1 46.00 62.60 29.81 $9.28 4.68 $21.68 48.76 65.84 31.01 $9.61 4.89 © 8.07 $22.57 1.16 67.19 $9.92 I 5.08 $23.38 M—Material I.—Labor. O—Overhead. 1508—December 1927, The Iron Age that they were frequently broken handling, shipping and installation. The matter appearance eame into the discussion, but one seemed have any defi- nite standards how base rails ought look. gained courage from the acceptance the welded steel motor frames the trade, aesthetic considerations were subordinated and the base rails were redesigned shown, reducing the cost the “500 series” from $5.21 $3.04 each. heard complaint from the trade the angle steel rails. Complex End Brackets Still Cast Motor end brackets proved far more difficult mat- ter, due the complicated shape the part. The welded steel equivalent the cast iron end bracket re- quired relatively high labor cost get the desired shape, due the cutting and forming operations in- volved. One the illustrations shows one design sleeve-bearing end bracket made welded steel, which analysis showed cost $1.63 each: The casting was designed replace cost only $1.08. obvious that welded steel construction had justification this in- stance and the design was rejected. the other hand, the ball bearing end brackets somewhat larger size have been changed over welded steel because they may made few cents cheaper. New designs are process being worked out for the sleeve-type end brackets, which promise overcome the high cost the original. One the replacement jobs which yielded very great saving was that substituting welded steel bases for cast iron bases used motor-generator sets. Analysis the existing designs led the discovery that most bases seem designed that the big- gest man with the biggest wrench cannot distort the base when mounted its foundation. the steel design, the nuts the foundation bolts were made bear the outstanding leg steel angle such manner permit distortion the flange without warping the base. This made possible reduce the designed stiffness the base and save great deal material. Costs Cannot Known Until Sales Are Made Any attempt generalize the relative costs castings and welded steel construction must necessarily restricted the three main elements cost manufacturing: Material, labor and overhead. These elements, course, not tell the whole story—for instance, all three items might reduced, but product turned out which few people would want buy. Any- one who claimed that had made real cost reduction under such conditions would considered slightly in- sane. Any practice which results restriction sales nearly always increases costs, and conversely any change manufacturing method which results in- creased sales, decreases costs more rapidly than in- dicated mere statement the material, labor and overhead saved. Following this line argument, hold that cost reduction never actually proved until its effect sales shown. The most striking example the funda- mental nature this principle the Ford Model car. effect cost reductions practically changes were made. Material, labor and overhead reductions were made steadily year after year. But finally not enough people wanted buy the automobile. The net result, therefore, during the first months 1927 was that few cars were sold that cost increased the point that production had discontinued. Reverting our own problem, this discussion costs will confined material, labor and overhead costs. Since sales have increased more than 100 per cent after the adoption welded steel, sales damage has occurred. Equal Raw Material Costs matter where the casting made, the cost the necessary steel the same the cost foundry pig make piece the same rigidity. the plant which buys its castings from jobbing foundry, the problem buy, cut, assemble, and weld the hot (Concluded page 1567) Milling Machine New Design Hydraulic Table Drive Provides Flexibility Feed Control— Bed and Other Units Designed for Heavy Duty held the National Machine Tool Builders’ Asso- ciation Cleveland, Sept. 19-23, was the wider utilization hydraulic feeds. New applications this method feed included its use automatic milling machines known the “Giant Hydromatics,” shown for the first time the Cincinnati Milling Machine Co., Cincinnati. The arrangement the hydraulic table- reciprocating mechanism, well other features these machines, outlined the following paragraphs from data recently made available the Cincinnati company. The machines are built plain and duplex types and number sizes ranging table travel from weight the machines range from 9500 18,000 stated that designing the machine the gen- eral structure planer, generally regarded the heaviest type machine tool, was followed, particu- larly the long bed for supporting the table and the rugged housings for supporting the cutting tool. The design adopted flexible that not only allows wide bed machines, but also permits the application multiple-spindle units arranged horizontally, vertically and combination both. The housings, which carry the spindle-driving unit are box section and heavily ribbed. The lower com- partment contains, one side, the motor, and the tendency attracting attention the exposition Addition Hydraulic Feed, Features Include New Design Bed and Facili- ties for Chip Accumulation and Disposal. One-position operating control another feature CINCINNATI Both Plain and Duplex Types Are Built. The design permits the ap- plication multiple-spindle units, arranged horizontally, vertically combination 4 other side the preliminary driving units such mul- tiple-disk friction clutch and spindle reverse mechanism. The upper part carries the spindle carrier. The latter self-contained unit which the entire gear trans- mission, including the spindle speed change gears, are mounted. This unit also carries the large quill which provides for the lateral adjustment the cutter. The quill high carbon steel, heat-treated, and adjust- ment made through self-locking worm and rack construction. rigidly clamped the spindle car- rier around its full diameter one bolt. The table mounted directly the bed, which new design. Disposal the chips produced and also the large amount cutter coolant through the large chamber underneath the table. The portion bed which carries the table tubular cross section and made integral with the side walls cross bridges oval section. These bridges are spaced permit free passage the longest chips falling from the table into the bed, and large door the front end the ma- chine allows for quick removal the chips. Coolant returned its reservoir through large strainer inside the bed. Simple splash guards may at- tached the bed confine the coolant inside the table area. The rear end the bed carries sepa- rate chamber the self-contained feed unit with its pump, valves and oil reservoir. The table bear- ings the bed are the full width the table and are 4 The Age, December | | A sufficient length that the overhanging the table its extreme positions never exceeds more than one- fourth the table length. Operating Characteristics Hydraulic Table Drive applying hydraulics the reciprocation the table the machine the following operating character- istics are said have been provided: Reciprocation either direction normal feeding rates. Reciprocation either direction rapid traverse rates. Positive control feeding movement re- gardless the direction amount the result- ant cutting force. locked condition the table when the The Mounting the Pump Unit the End the Bed Shown Above stopped position, thus rendering incapable movement under the action the cutter. The ability for accurate reversal the table under any cutting condition. Conveniently controlled acceleration de- celeration the feed rate during cut. Economical operation. These operating characteristics have been obtained the use special combination pumps and auxiliary devices arranged provide locked control system. Two hydraulic circuits, one for feeding and the other for rapid traverse, are employed. The elements the feeding circuit include cylinder bolted the bed and carrying sliding connected the table piston rod. There also reversing valve, Oil- gear variable-displacement pump, and small high- pressure booster pump working with the latter pro- duce continued forward pressure upon the piston, the amount this pressure being determined the set- ting relief valve. 1510—December 1927, The Iron Age The space within the cylinder both sides the piston all times completely filled with oil; conse- quently, order that the piston may moved given direction means the forward pressure, necessary that the oil the other side able escape. escape permitted there will movement the piston; escape oil permitted, then the piston will advance just fast the escap- ing oil will allow it, and with positively-controlled escapement the rate advance virtually independent the amount forward pressure applied. the arrangement employed the only avenue escape for the oil from the rear end the cylinder through pipe and reversing valve; thence through the Oilgear pump. Consequently, the quantity oil per- mitted escape from the cylinder definitely fixed the displacement the Oilgear pump. The displace- ment this pump may varied will from zero maximum, the forward rate the table being like- wise readily varied from zero maximum. Further- more, the feed rate determined not the amount oil fed the cylinder, but the amount permitted escape from the discharge end. this way high back pressure built resist the movement the piston, thus providing constantly receding restraint. The Pump Unit and Connections Are Shown Above and Left, Respectively. The cam feed control plunger the outlet the right- hand cylinder end the outlet the left- hand cylinder end the Oilgear pump the selector valve the stop valve for recip- rocating cycle the booster and rapid tra- verse pump and the oil reservoir The filling plug the oil level gage the high-pressure relief valve the emer- gency relief valve for rapid traverse and the feed rate control lever for hand control The amount this back pressure not constant, but varies with the direction and amount the resultant cutting force. provide high table speed for rapid approach the work and rapid return, use made auxil- iary, large-volume, low-pressure gear pump. Although for the sake simplicity the feeding and rapid-traverse circuits have been separately described, actual practice both circuits are interconnected and operated common control selector valve arranged provide both reversal table movement and change speed from feed rate rapid traverse, vice versa. This accomplished the use valve having both reciprocatory and oscillatory motion. Advantages from Hydraulic Feed outstanding advantage claimed for the use the hydraulic feed flexibility feed control. Features provided, listed the company, are: 1.—Any de- sired feed rate from zero maximum accomplished merely the setting the pendulum the variable- displacement pump from zero maximum. matic change feed rate during cut, desired, pro- viding maximum metal removal. 3.—Any desired cycle feed and quick traverse either direction together with automatic stop feed change any point. § \ ea! Possibility milling given direction until the table encounters positive stop, then dwelling allow cutter clear itself, and after predetermined inter- val time automatically returning the table rapid traverse rate. 5.—Accuracy trip. Item pointed out, particularly valuable production operation wherever the width piece milled not uniform throughout its length. Under existing practice necessary limit the feed rate for the entire piece the proper rate for the widest part, whereas with the hydraulic system simple cam may arranged automatically adjust the feed rate the amount desired for each successive table posi- tion. Another advantage claimed for the hydraulic feed longer cutter life. this connection stated that the application hydraulics broaches, drilling machines, and other machine tools outstanding characteristic has been marked increase the life the tool. The same effect said have been found exist the case the hydraulic-feed milling ma- chine. third advantage cited for the hydraulic feed higher efficiency metal removal. Tests covering wide variety work have been made, and data relating this investigation, together with data cutter life and chip formation, will made available later. Another advantage claimed safety, the entire feeding transmission being automatically safeguarded against overloading the action the various relief and control valves. Simplicity another feature em- phasized. Self-Contained Drive Arrangement The drive through motor, inclosed the hous- ing, the initial drive shaft means silent chain which automatically lubricated. This initial shaft carries multiple disk friction clutch and set bevel gears for changing the direction spindle rotation. These members self-contained unit pro- vided with splash lubrication. One the bevel gears the reverse mechanism used driver the vertical shaft from which, means set reduction bevel gears, the change gears are driven. These change gears are mounted solidly the shaft means steep taper and locking nut facilitating their removal when speed changes have made. The second change gear shaft also carries the back gear pinion from which large face gear driven. This entire mechanism lubricated means oil pump continuously cir- culating oil over all bearings and gears. All shafts, including the spindles, run Timken roller bearings and the spindle itself runs the com- pany’s four bearing self-compensating spindle mount- ing. The drive designed keep the high constant- speed transmission close the spindle possible. claimed that providing the change gears direct- the face-gear pinion shaft, drive with maximum rigidity and minimum torque has been provided. Only four gear contacts are the drive. Operating levers are located conveniently. start- ing lever operates the friction clutch and brake. second lever controls the feeding mechanism; this has four positions, two which result power quick tra- verse the table either direction, while the other two positions give feed the table either direc- tion. The positions this lever indicate the direction which the table moving. third lever starts and stops the table movement, whether fast slow. Auto- matic control the table similar that used the company’s mechanically-operated automatic milling machine. Adjustments for setting the machine, such raising and lowering the spindle carrier, the in-and- out adjustment the quill are made from one position. All bolts for loosening and tightening the various ele- ments can operated with single wrench the same All running parts, including the table, are auto- matically oiled and not need attention more than once month. Only one place the machine the conventional daily oiling. Steel vs. Reinforced Concrete for Bridges Advantages Steel Include Known Durability, Rapid Erection and Use Materials Tested Beforehand OME the comparative qualities steel and concrete for bridges were covered address Dr. Ralph Modjeski, consulting bridge engineer, New York, the fifth annual convention the Amer- ican Institute Steel Construction. portion his paper follows: The proposed bridges Tacony over the Delaware River near Philadelphia, well the one Louis- ville over the Ohio River, will steel. The first one, aside from its long navigation span and its bascule span, will composed short steel lattice girders. The second will series steel arches. both bridges reinforced concrete arches would have been possible but the engineers chose steel because of: Possibility erecting the superstructure cantilever method with little falsework, whereas arches would require heavy centering and danger from floods. Much more rapid erection the steel spans. Continuous work during winter. Certainty calculations, etc. yet not know how long the reinforced con- crete structures already built will last. know that steel will last indefinitely properly designed, cared for and protected. The Menai Bridge England, eyebar chain suspension bridge, lasted over 100 years. There are link suspension bridges China which are believed have lasted for centuries. There doubt the value good, dense concrete lasting protection for steel against corro- sion. This has been fully demonstrated and one its most valuable properties. But there grave doubt whether the steel tension flanges reinforced con- crete beams will not exposed oxidation through the cracks its shell concrete, since, remarked before, the concrete being practically inelastic, bound crack under tension. Alloy Steels Coming into Larger Use are now the era steel alloys for construc- tion use. Chrome-steel was used the Eads Bridge St. Louis. Later nickel and silicon-steel were intro- duced and widely used. Mayari steel, natural Cuban ore, containing both chrome and nickel, was used the Harahan Bridge Memphis. Copper-bearing steel now being talked suitable material for structural purposes. said less subject corrosion than ordinary steel. may expect still greater progress the alloy steels and their application engineering structures. The discovery absolutely rustless and not too expensive alloy, which would still retain its physical properties strength and the resilience now obtained steel, probable. When this occurs shall have absolutely perfect material construction requir- ing painting other protection from the elements, besides being absolutely reliable and durable. Even now, with the steel subject rust not prop- erly taken care of, not often hear steel struc- tures being replaced because deterioration. Most replacements are necessary because increases load- ing because other conditions making alterations necessary. And may added that alterations structural steel are much more easily accomplished than reinforced concrete. The Iron Age, December 1927—1511 a 4 i 3 | i & ‘ 2 | Sand-Condition Plant Saves Labor Combination Conveyors and Elevators Reduces Time Per Cent—Smoother Castings Reported prepare sand reported have been effected the gray iron foundry James Clow Sons Co., Newcomerstown, Ohio, the installation new sand preparation plant. Since the process has been operation the castings produced the company have been smoother and are more easily cleaned. The percentage defective castings has been materially decreased, while the labor three men has been elimi- nated. Faster and more thorough preparation sand has made possible place all the backing sand neces- sary for the day’s work the storage bins few hours. Then the equipment free used for facing the sand. The result the saving one mixer and one workman. Flasks are shaken out steel shake-out hopper ft. wide and ft. deep, having hinged bar grating 2-in. 10-in. mesh, the hopper being elevated in. above the floor level. The radiator loops, sprues and large cores are held the grating. The sand passing through the hopper drops horizontal belt con- veyor in. wide, operating ft. minute. The conveyor carries distance ft. bucket ele- vator. The elevator takes the sand upward about ft. and dumps into chute leading No. Niagara which screens out the small pieces metal. From this point the sand falls into four-ton hopper with clamshell valves, and thence into Simpson mixer. After passing through the mixer, deposited second horizontal belt conveyor similar the one al- ready described. This conveyor takes the sand Second Phase—Sand from the Simpson Mixer Passes Along Conveyor and Elevator, Through Aerator and into Hopper. drawn into dump cars for distribution needed al ump Cal : \\Fioor r ; 2 = 7+ — 1512—December 1927, The Iron Age second elevator paralleling the first one, and like construction. Again the sand elevated approximately ft. and dumped into Jeffrey sand conditioner. con- sists revolving studded roll running 900 r.p.m. and operating against series adjustable wire brushes. The combined action the roll and the brushes completely disintegrates and aerates the sand. From the conditioner the sand passes down into an- other four-ton hopper, with clamshell valves the toggle type, which turn empties into dump cars the mezzanine floor the foundry. The cars then First Phase Sand from the Shake-Out Passes veyor and Eleva- tor, Through Niagara Screen, into Hopper and Thence into Simp- son Mixer. This the same mixer Niagara other drawing transport the prepared sand bins which are located directly over the molders’ benches. Under the new method preparation, the sand shows moisture variation only per cent, averag- ing vent, American Foundrymen’s Association test, whereas the old sand averaged 100 vent. the other hand, the green sand strength reveals 150 the test, against the former average 100. expected that this contrast will become greater the foundry becomes better adjusted the operation the new sand preparation plant. Moreover, installation the steel shake-out hopper brought about considerable saving. The old wooden hopper formerly used was level with the floor, and was necessary shovel portion the sand into it. shake out 1800 flasks, 180 tons sand, required the services four men working total hours. Now only three men are needed, and they are able complete the hours. The steel shake-out hopper, the two belt conveyors, the two bucket elevators and the two four-ton hoppers with clamshell valves were supplied the Jeffrey Mfg. Co., Columbus, Ohio. 4 | | Hopper i] Conditioner Consists Re- volving Studded Roll Running 900 r.p.m. and Operating Against Series Adjust- able Wire Brushes (Right) From the Conditioner the Sand Passes Down into Another 4-Ton Hopper, (Bottom Page) with Clamshell Valves the Toggle Type, Which Turn Empties into Dump Cars the Mezza- nine Floor the Foundry. dump car LASKS Are Shaken Out Steel Shake-out Hopper (Above), 11-ft. Wide and 8-ft. Deep, Hav- ing 2-in. 10-in. Mesh Hinged Bar Grating, the Hopper Being Elevated 18-in. Above the Floor Level. The radiator loops, sprues and large cores are held the gtating. The bucket pears center and the Simpson mixer left a | The Iron Age, December F j Standard Sections Steel House Frame and Partitions Standard Structural Shapes, Rafters Wood and Interior and Exterior Sheathing Gypsum Board Are Features Cleveland Residence channel have replaced beam sections, previously used for studs and joists, the third steel frame McKay, the McKay Fire- proof Construction Co., Cleve- land. The first house the McKay type was built about year ago. Since that time the original design the steel frame has been changed somewhat and the house just completed Cleveland the frame made entirely standard structural shapes. Costs Made Leading Consideration This house, shown the accompanying tions, ft. with 10-ft. wing used for break- fast room. The steel frame fabricated and delivered cost $583.72. The labor cost erection amounted $105.75, and the cost the steel used for the parti- tions delivered and fabricated was $85.73. This made the total cost the steel frame and partitions $775.20, and after completion the house was sold for $15,000. Better construction residences was the main ob- ject Mr. McKay sought attain designing his type steel frame house. Elimination shrinkage, as- suring level floors, preventing wall cracks and making possible factory built house with the detail work done the shop and actual erection largely assembling work, was sought, although protection against fire was not given large consideration. Costs were given particular attention the design. The builder was not directly interested finding new outlet for structural steel and did not attempt use large amount. Flexible Framing Feature The McKay type house designed the unit system that the same framing plan may used for any number houses not having great deal similarity outside appearance. Flexible framing outstanding feature the design. The framing the doors and windows adjustable that can made fit the architect’s plans. difficulty met building steel frame houses, especially brick houses, pointed out, detailing the steel framing and establishing the window and door openings shown the architect’s plans. With adjustable steel frames the window framing can moved work out the true bond for brick work. Otherwise would necessary small pieces brick alongside the window frames, which would detract from the appearance the house. With the McKay system full-sized brick can used the side the frames. The rafters are wood. Because steel roof fram- ing said require rather complicated detailing was decided limit the steel construction the house frame. From the standpoint fire protection claimed that nearly all the fires residences start below the top floor and for that reason house with wood rafters nearly fireproof one with steel roof framing: feature the house the use gypsum board for both exterior sheathing and interior This takes the place plaster work. The sheathing also acts fireproofing for the steel. Floor Joists 4-ft. Centers The size the floor joists depends upon the span. They are placed 4-ft. centers and rest one end 1514—December 1927, The Iron Age foundation, and the other end center girder which embedded the foundation that flush with the bed plates. the corners 10-in. bed plates are used. The studs are 4-in. channels placed 4-ft. centers. Each corner post made two 4-in. channels with the same punchings the studs. These corner members are riveted together with 2-in. angles. Both the regular studs and the corner posts are cut for each story. each end the channel stud riveted plate, these plates extending in. below the bottom and in. above the top the channel. The studs rest the top the first floor joists and the plate riveted the lower end the stud bolted the The studs are braced %-in. angles punched 4-in. centers which are bolted the studs and floor beams. This bracing assures positive aline- ment the studs and 4-ft. centering for locking 4-ft. gypsum board used for sheathing. the first and second floor angles are placed the inside the studs. the top the studs the roof line these angles are placed the the studs. this point 4-in. wood member bolted the steel channel and this the wood roof rafters are nailed. The second and third floor joists are bolted into the studs the same way the first floor joists. Framing Windows the framing windows and doors where necessary remove one more the 4-in. channel studs 3-in. I-beam placed horizontally between the studs above the first and second floor joists and under- neath the second and third floor joists. These are set the proper position allow space for the windows. Between these beams 4-in. channels are set vertically. Riveted each end the channel 2-in. angle lug. The other end the lug has two 7/16-in. holes punched 2%-in. centers located that they come the outside the flanges the 3-in. I-beams. The channels are clamped the flanges the top and bottom I-beams means four clips and can placed any position along the beams, thus being adjustable for window door any size. When the channels are the required position they are bolted the horizontal I-beams. The top I-beam header bolted either the second third floor joist above. With this construction the window and door chan- nels fit tightly between the top the 3-in. I-beam headers and act support for the 3-in. I-beam that carrying the channel floor joist. The 3-in. I-beams used the window and door framing are cut standard lengths ft., ft. and ft., the lengths used depending the number studs removed for window door openings. the outer side the window channels 4-in. wood members are fastened with lag screws that are driven through holes punched the channels during fabrication. Frames, door jambs and interior woodwork are nailed these wood sec- tions. two sides the house which the studs carry load but must placed provide the proper thick- ness wall receive the window frames and doors, the studs are clamped over the end the floor joists, making them adjustable. This permits them moved along the floor joists positions that will allow the placing the doors and windows positions shown the plans. When place the clamps are bolted assure rigid connection with the studs and floor joists. When window door located between two studs 7 4-in. wood sections are screwed the studs for nailing the door and window frames and inside trim. Wood Sections Between Joists and Floors When the roof inclosed and the window sashes are place 4-in. wood sections are laid the floor joists 16-in. centers and are screwed the flanges The gypsum board used for outside sheathing applied 4-ft. sheets in. thick. Metal clips are used attach this the steel frame. The gypsum interior walls, partitions and ceiling similar man- ner. After the walls are covered the joints are filled and sanded, leaving smooth flat surface which may Steel Frame Be- fore Completion, Showing the Way the Gypsum Sheathing Ap- First Floor Af- ter Framing Finished. Win- dow frames and sash are set, pip- ing and wiring have been in- stalled wood floors have been laid the steel channel joists. Then the floor laid the usual manner, attention being paid the parti- tions. The use wood sections between the joists and floors permits the laying pipes above the steel floor joists and the installation wiring without cutting burning the joists. doing the electrical work the wiring attached the wood members and kept in. from the steel sections, required the National Board Fire Underwriters. After the wiring and piping are place %-in. gypsum board placed the ceiling and outer walls. Three-inch channels spaced 4-ft. centers are used for partitions. These have 2-in. angle lugs each end. Each center partition screwed into the wood floor and the gypsum board the ceiling lag screws. Where there are door openings 3-in. wood sections are screwed the channels for hanging the doors and nailing the trim. Work decorated desired. The outside wall covering may brick, stone, wood stucco. Oil Burner Men Meet Chicago April Announcement made the fifth annual conven- tion and exposition the American Oil Burner Asso- ciation, which will held the Hotel Stevens, Chi- cago, April and Reservations for space have already been made number companies. Ar- rangements are being made care for attendance about 2500, which will large increase over the attendance the Buffalo convention last spring. Ap- plicants for space should communicate with the secre- tary, Leod Becker, 350 Madison Avenue, New York, The Iron Age, December 1927—1515 plied the Start the Ex- terior Brick q this page are shown the meter Armco ingot iron siphons the field prior assembling and sections bolted together ready for the 1516—December 1927, The Iron Age interesting engineering project under develop- ment Sao Paulo, the second largest city Brazil. ducts and pipe lines supply gal. 250 liters water day for each the 800,000 inhabitants and provide for future growth equal the present population are being installed. From dam the Rio Claro, miles from Sao Paulo, water will carried through pipe line iron plates and aqueducts rein- forced concrete. The siphon sections are the iron plate pipes, riveted, and total miles length. Some miles the pipe in. di- ameter built plates in. thick and subject maximum pressure lb. per sq. in. There miles pipe with 7/16-in. plates and subject 114 Ib. pressure. all, 22,000 tons metal will required. Three reservoirs are under construction, the largest with capacity 72,000 cu. and the others each with ca- pacity 26,000 cu. Sao Paulo Brazil Buildin Water P 4 7 on The regions covered are mountainous, sparsely settled and covered with dense miles required handle the heavy traffic. The engineer charge this work Dr. Henrique Novaes, native Brazil. After graduating from the School civil engineering, where won the first prize, free educational trip abroad, Dr. Novaes served the federal reclamation service assis- tant engineer; the Rio Grande Norte Railroad assistant resident engineer, and the Rio Light Power Co. its hy- draulic construction. Braithwaite Co., Ltd., London, England, which has the contract for the construc- tion work, built assembly plant near Sao Paulo. Here the plates are rolled into com- plete lengths, and three more lengths are hydraulically riveted together form tubes. They are pneumatically calked and are given coat paint, both internally and ex- ternally. the top may seen the rivet- ing done the as- sembly plant near Sao Paulo, where the plates are rolled into cylindrical form, and the other views show general field conditions. The Age, December 1927—1517 — ’ > > Line Taking 22,000 Tons Ingot Iron Plates { — Steels Best for Nitrogen Fixation Two Per Cent Chromium Sufficient Stop Deep Fissuring and Confine Deterioration Thin Surface Layer Steel THOMPSON* ESIGN and construction apparatus for the fixation atmospheric nitrogen modern methods, involving the use high pressures and high temperatures, has required gineering and metallurgical research. gases under pressures ranging 1500 atmospheres (22,500 Ib. per sq. in.) presents many engineering dif- ficulties and the problems were further complicated the lack data the strength and other properties structural materials the elevated temperatures, 500 deg. C., employed the process. Furthermore, was soon evident that many the common structural materials rapidly deteriorated and soon failed ser- vice either the synthesis cracking ammonia. The serious consequences sudden failure sys- tem containing large quantities hydrogen under high pressures and temperatures above the kindling point the gas, are obvious. Accordingly, investigation was started, and still progress this laboratory, searching for the metal metals which would possess the desired physical characteristics and which would best retain these characteristics when exposed gas- eous systems containing hydrogen, nitrogen and am- monia. Results far attained will given detail forthcoming publication from the United States Bureau Standards, Sveshnikoff and the writer. was quickly demonstrated that wrought iron, mild steel, copper, nickel and various alloys all deteriorated rapidly from intergranular intercrystalline fissuring. The metallic grains themselves were not appreciably at- tacked and the surface the metal, where the attack originated, was seldom affected enough indicate the severity the attack the interior the specimen. example the rapidity deterioration some- times encountered, the wall seamless copper tube, 0.15 in. thick, was completely riddled six days’ ser- vice catalyst well. these early tests, the results which have ap- peared two the most promising results were obtained from chromium-nickel-iron-silicon alloy and this led systematic study number alloy steels. The first series consisted ten forging, carburizing and tool steels, listed the table. The specimens, carefully annealed, were made the form hol- low test cylinders shown Fig. The cavity each cylinder was large enough accommodate two tensile, two Charpy impact, and two small corrosion *Bureau Chemistry and Soils, United States Depart- ment Agriculture. Published permission the Director. tJ. Vanick: Transactions American Society for Steel Treating, Vol. page (1923) Proceedings American So- ciety for Testing Materials, Vol. 24, page 348 (1924). plugs. The cylinders were connected series and were exposed conditions representative the syn- thesis ammonia, i.e., were exposed the action gas consisting parts hydrogen and part nitrogen, this mixture containing 8.3 per cent ammonia, 100 atmospheres pressure and 500 deg. The ex- posure was continued for four months, after which specimens cut from the cylinder walls well those stored inside the bombs, were tested tension and im- pact, and subjected microscopic and macroscopic examination. was soon evident that one test would explain, satisfactorily, all the observed phenom- ena but that final judgment could rendered only the basis composite data from all the tests. general marked decrease strength and ductil- ity the specimens resulted. Decarbonization and fis- suring occur, usually together but sometimes Fig. 1—Test Cylinder and Gas Connections; Approximately In. Long Overall pendently, and varying widely severity. Two types penetration were observed, regular, uniform in- ward migration, and selective, “tendril” type ad- vance, the latter being harder detect and evaluate. The penetrated area sometimes extended the core the samples. The progress fissures along slag prills was frequently noted. summary all the evidence showed that: The tungsten-chromium steel, No. 39, was the least affected any this group. Except for intergranu- lar fissures close the surface this specimen, shown Fig. there was very little evidence at- tack the gases, notwithstanding initially high carbon content (which subsequent tests would indicate detrimental). The chromium steels, within the range chromium studied this series, all suffered from the treacherous tendril form penetration, shown Fig. appeared, however, that the resistance penetration in- creased with increasing alloy content, although some cases this beneficial effect was wholly partly nullified Composition Ten Steels First Studied 1,020 0.19 0.43 0.008 0.033 0.17 1,095 1.01 0.40 0.007 0.036 0.16 33 2,330 0.24 0.52 0.008 0.032 0.03 se 3.43 eee 6,130 0.30 0.68 0.012 0.024 0.26 0.93 0.18 3,335 0.39 0.70 0.011 0.044 0.29 0.84 3.56 3,230 0.27 0.59 0.014 0.022 0.13 1.00 1.60 37 52,100 0.93 0.30 0.010 0.014 0.2 1.47 owe ° 5,140 0.48 0.79 0.030 0.029 0.2 0.60 7,260 0.58 0.36 0.004 0.017 0.55 0.21 1.62 2,512 0.10 0.31 0.008 0.023 0.31 4.87 1518—December 1927, The Iron Age comparison the high and low carbon plain steels, there was less deterioration the low carbon steels, although both high and low carbon samples were penetrated their very centers after four months’ ex- posure. Nickel steels showed distinctive type selective fissuring, illustrated Fig. which reached the core the specimen some the four month expo- sures. The fissures were mainly concentric with the cylindrical wall and most them were alined one direction, that surprising amount tensile strength was frequently found remain deeply penetrated specimen. Nickel-chromium steels reflected the influence both elements. Systematic Studies Chromium-Vanadium Steels The improved resistance the higher chromium steels the series just described, and the possibility further improvement with still higher chromium con- tents, coupled with the commercial availability chro- mium chromium-vanadium steels, led the choice this type steel for further tests. The composi- tions chosen, shown the table, represent three series, each which one the three main constitu- ents, carbon, chromium, vanadium, varied while the other two are maintained reasonably constant. > BURT OW FIG. Fig. 2—Slight Fissuring Tungsten-Chromium Steel No. penetration and decarbonization low chromium steel No. 37—100 dia. nickel steel No. 40—50 dia. ‘ >, Be 4 4 > , FIG. Fig. Fig. 4—Parallel fissuring high Near Surface—500 Dia. Samples the 0.30 carbon chromium-vanadium steel from the first series tests were included each these later series for comparison purposes. The samples were double annealed and shaped into bombs and specimens, which were exposed 3:1 gas, containing 8.3 per cent ammonia, under 100 atmospheres pressure and 500 deg. C., the preceding test. The exposure was continued for ten months after which the bombs and specimens were removed and sub- jected tensile, impact, macroscopic and microscopic examination. Either uniform selective penetration were observed this series. The carbon steels were deeply pene- trated, shown Fig. the deterioration increasing severity the carbon content increased. was ob- served that consistent results for carbon steels could obtained only from long exposures, since the high carbon steels showed greater initial resistance but, after penetration once began, they deteriorated more rapidly and completely than did the lower carbon speci- mens. Short exposures week two may badly misleading: For the vanadium series, the data show that three- fold increase over the ordinary vanadium content 1.0 per cent chromium steel failed improve signifi- cantly the resistance the samples. All the vanadium steels suffered from selective penetration and fissuring, Microstructure Annealed Alloy Steels After Exposure for Months Fig. 5—Severe Fissuring and Decarbonization High Car- bon Steel No. Dia. Fig. decarbonization and severe fissuring vanadium steel No. 7—50 Dia. Fig. 7—Partial decarbonization and severe fissuring high carbon steel No. 14—500 Dia. Fig. 8—Fissuring the high chromium steels confined the shallow penetrated zones. Steel No. 27—100 dia. FIG. 4% 4 FIG. The Iron Age, December 1927—1519 4 Microstructure Specimens from First Series, After Exposure for Four Months 7 7 7 H 3 shown Fig. and most them were completely penetrated within days. All steels containing more than per cent chromium resisted the action the gases excellently. All other steels showed deep irregular zones penetration and microscopic examination usually revealed the presence fine irregular fissures extending appreciable dis- tances further. Low chromium steels also showed the selective type fissuring and deep penetration, illus- trated Fig. but the attack high chromium steels was confined shallow, uniform illus- trated Fig. and this was limited the surface layer, far macroscopic and microscopic examina- tion could determine. Two per cent more chromium seems nec- essary retard the rate and limit penetration uniform layer parallel the surface, thus eliminating the selective, tendril type progressive deterioration. The presence more than per cent chromium re- tarded the penetration still more, but not direct pro- portion the increase chromium. For example, the 7.7 per cent chromium steel No. was only slightly better than the per cent steel No. Resistance May Due Stable Chromium Nitride Steels containing more than per cent chromium were colored blue contrast the dull gray the Composition Carbon-Chromium-Vanadium Steels Chosen for Second Series of Tests Sample Chromium Series 0.37 0.39 0.017 0.022 0.27 0.04 0.19 0.29 0.53 0.015 0.011 0.16 0.51 0.28 0.30 0.68 0.012 0.024 0.26 0.93 0.18 0.31 0.48 0.011 0.011 0.12 2.01 0.34 5 0.33 0.37 0.028 0.013 0.26 7.70 0.18 0.42 0.35 0.025 0.009 0.06 14.40 0.18 0.2 0.40 0.020 0.020 0.60 13.50 0.48 0.09 0.018 0.014 0.43 21.10 0.07 Vanadium Series 0.40 0.53 0.018 0.013 0.18 1.05 0.02 8 0.37 0.52 0.018 0.018 0.20 1.05 0.07 0.37 0.020 0.013 0.20 1.02 0.14 0.55 0.018 0.019 0.18 1.07 0.31 0.34 0.025 0.011 0.29 1.24 0.65 Carbon Series 0.16 0.55 0.023 0.023 0.34 1.03 0.20 0.58 0.68 0.011 0.017 0.23 0.73 0.18 1.16 0.022 0.018 0.20 1.06 0.20 others. The blue coloration ascribed the forma- tion nitride chromium, dissolved solid so- lution the surface the metal and which longer exposures penetrated measurable distances into the steel. Chemical analysis thin layers this dark colored solid solution from one specimen showed ni- trogen content 0.59 per cent compared original 0.016 per cent. Aside from this dark colored layer near the surface, the chromium steels showed appreciable change structure result the pro- longed heating 500 deg. Four specimens chromium steel No. were heat treated different ways before exposure see this would affect their resistance. The observed results were irregular lead the conclusion that heat treatment steel containing less than per cent chromium would not produce satisfactory resistance. The results obtained from this second series chro- mium-carbon-vanadium steels, show that: The carbon content must low. Two per cent more chromium necessary confine the fissuring and decarbonization uniform, shallow penetration. Larger amounts chromium improve resistance the steel, but not direct proportion the increase chromium. High chromium and high chromium-nickel steels are most resistant, but are difficult fabricate. suitable steel would contain least per cent chromium with not more than 0.30 per cent carbon. Heat treatment useful dissolve alloys steels inherently resistant and render them more uniform structure, but does not impart resistance other- wise non-resistant steels. 1520—December 1927, The Iron Age Vanadium does not render steel resistant the attack the gases. Discussion and Summary These studies have shown conclusively that expo- sure these steels the conditions described causes decarbonization; fissuring, voiding, porosity the affected zones; lowered strength and ductility; and sharp increase combined nitrogen the affected zones the higher chromium steels. All these features are evidence the corrosive attack the hot, compressed gases the steels. Hydrogen, particular- active atomic hydrogen from the catalytic forma- tion and decomposition ammonia (which reactions are continuously occurring those temperatures and pressures) undoubtedly the principal agent the attack. Hydrogen filtering into the steel could accom- plish the decarbonization and produce least some the fissuring. Preliminary attack the hydrogen makes easier for ammonia penetrate the steel and increase the destructive action already begun. While high concentrations ammonia are known attack steel, would seem fi