The Iron Age 1924-11-27: Vol 114 Iss 22

_ THETRON AGE New York, November 27, 1924 ESTABLISHED 1855 4 VOL. 114, No. 22 a Mechanical Charging for a Foundry Cupola More Uniform Mixing and Better Iron Are Secured—Hy- draulic Core Remover Cuts Costs of Cleaning Castings QOWER labor cost, uniform charging and better iG quality of iron have been secured by the Worth- ington Pump & Machinery Corporation, Snow- Holley Works, Buffalo, in the method of cupola charg- ing now in use in the foundry at that plant. Formerly pig iron, scrap steel, etc., were placed on the charging floor by crane, and charged by hand from there. This, of course, required a considerable number of men to take care of the two cupolas. With the arrangement now in use three men can charge 100 to 150 tons per day as compared with 14 men formerly. Charging buckets, some with a capacity of three tons, others of four tons, have accomplished the sav- ing. On the ground is an electrically operated car on which one of the buckets is placed. It is moved past a series of bins from which are loaded into the bucket the proper proportions of pig iron and scrap until the car reaches the end of its runway, which is directly under an opening in the charging floor. Two men care for the work to this point. A crane, operating over the charging floor, drops its hook through the Drop Bottom Charging Buckets Permit Faster Charging of the Cupola, at the Same Time Making for Uniform and Better Iron opening and lifts the loaded, bucket through this trap door to a position before the charging doors. Before delivering the charging bucket within the cupola, the crane operator attaches a pull chain to the dumping trigger. This trigger is mounted in a cross member, to which is also attached the ring or bail by which the crane hook lifts the bucket. The bucket is then lowered into the cupola and the chain operating the trigger is pulled, the action withdrawing latches, so that the two halves of the bucket swing down, dropping the load. The drop bottom has two leaves hinged on a center shaft parallel with the top cross member. By turning the cross member of each succes- sive bucket 90 deg. from the position of that of the preceding bucket, the charge may be dropped in such a manner that the four quarters of the cupola dianfeter are evenly charged, instead of the entire charge being thrown, as in hand charging, against the far side of the cupola wall. By means of a bell crank leyer ar- rangement on the bottom leaves, these are closed by simply lowering the bucket to rest on a floor <M ALLL OS A EE CN ea Sead oe tt ee pore S #s ee ee PEO EE le 6 > wate ~~ e PR Re on +9 ae GLO POLE I ee NT OE LE AY SM - 4 - a) A eagle RR tig ae oi i's " o Be, cm Ahan Ch NRE AE get ot ah oo 7 aaa 4 eS eee ee Sapte tarer 0, Yen ee eee he sy Oe ae sy? ere 1398 In the illustration the bucket is shown just after the charge has been dropped. It has been raised and is emerging from the charging doors. The flames had just started to break through this last charge when the photograph was taken. With this method of charging a better mix is obtained and consequently a more uniform quality of iron. Another labor saving feature in the Buffalo plant is the hydraulic core removing equipment. The cast- ing from which the core is to be removed is placed in an inclosure somewhat like a sand blast room, except Water at 325 Lb Has Ef Pressure . fected Large Sav- ing in Time Re- quired to Remove Cores from Large Castings. Labor is reduced and dust eliminated that one side may be left open because “there is no dust. Behind one of these walls the operator stands to control the nozzle in use. This nozzle is arranged with a moyiter mounting and has a lever extending through a tubbér apron to the operating room on the other side of thé wall. The operator views the work through a porthole provided with bullet proof glass, as frequently pieces of the core, snaggers, ete., are washed against the glass with considerable force. There are three of these nozzles around the clean- ing room, any one of which may be used at will by individual valves for each, mounted in the supply line from the pump, »All particles of the core are removed leaving clean casting walls. Core racks and what snaggers may remain inside the body of the casting THE IRON AGE November 27, 1924 are loose and readily dumped out by up-ending th casting. Some of the time savings effected are iy dicated by cleaning in an hour as against a day formerly, by 15 min. as against 4 hrs., by 2 hrs. as against 2 days, by 8 hrs. as against 10 days, under th old method of using bar and hammer. Further ther is no dust in this method of core cleaning. From th standpoint of labor for core removal this method aver- ages 1 as against 5 to 8, depending upon the type of casting. Naturally the smaller castings cannot be cleaned T he Pressure of the Tremendous Water Removes All Core Sand, Even That Baked to the Casting. Core frames and snag- gers are easily shaken out when the cleaned casting is removed from the cleaning room in this manner, owing to the force of the water. A casting as large as 1200 lb. was washed from the cleaning table against the walls. The pressure used is 325 lb. and is developed by a reciprocating pump of the company’s own make, with belted motor drive. Supply is drawn from an underground tank which is filled once a week, but to which the water used returns through screens and settling partitions from the clean- ing room. This tank holds about 3600 gal. Railroad car loadings were 1,015,704 in the week ended Nov. 15, the largest on record for so late in the year. For the year to date the total was 43,166,801 cars, Economic Progress of the United States” Review by Secretary Hoover of Business Conditions During the Year Ended June 30—Agriculture, Transportation and Foreign Trade First, the advance in agricultural prices, which had hitherto lagged behind industry since the slump of 1920; second, the beginnings of sound policies in German reparations, leading to a hopeful measure of economic recovery in Europe; and third, the complete recovery of our own industry and commerce (aside from agriculture), great stability of prices, high production, full employment, expanding foreign trade and prosper- ity throughout the business world. There were some moderate decreases in activity of some lines during the latter part of the fiscal year, but since its close there has been general recovery again in those lines. (rin, the ad features of the fiscal year were: Agricultural Price Recovery The situation of agricultural prices may be well indicated by comparing September prices with the general level of commodity prices. Based upon 1913 \UCDAseeDeMOn DEE DUNT ANUOE TDI VAEDONEDDONELUGND DARREN DEN veeeueEDHD POU OED PHERITIOSAUDRED ARIE CHD DORETRDOBPBI NERD: Pr Ley! PROT Kanne Di nTT OTT): eHNF/ T/#H0ER YN Table I.—Railroad Operations Per Cent Year ended June 30 Increase, — A 1923 to 1922 1923 1924 1924 Freight, ton mileage (millions) ........ 351,536 431,035 436,737 1.3 Average } SO Wa casas e weed 789,000 907,000 Average daily car sur- DE & ott nc'uns i neG8 272,756 36,399 Average daily ear 942,000 3.8 187,554 415.2 a 2,410 74,689 4,793 (4)93.6 Bad-order cars: Average for year.... 339,369 241,218 170,546 (d)29.3 Number at end of ED =o « ond © o ems ae 324,583 190,411 194,869 2.3 Bad-order locomotives: Average for year.... 15,764 16,089 10,838 (d)32.6 Number at end of WE Swésws.oe cies se 14,412 11,450 11,034 (d)3.6 Number of employees. .1,643,000 1,770,000 1,850,000 4.5 Total operating reve- WO su caceerea’ 5,508,169 6,104,274 6,120,646 0.3 Net operating income*. 818,345 873,777 924,674 8 *In thousands of dollars (d), decrease. — —Calendar Year— - Numbers 1921 1922 1923 Locomotives: Installed...... 1,330 1,379 4,037 EOI, Gacaneessnseaaes 1,130 1,682 3,746 In service end of year... 64,949 64,512 64,896 Freight cars: Installed...... 63,406 77,221 197,875 DED td Ve's es nas ; 69,245 126,472 200,000 In service end of year 2,344,787 2,322,286 2,376,373 HOUNHEDEVODOND LU NADEEONT DEBORAH ANODEOTHEAE™HED I (4/1) GUDETOREEDIEESIPCOMOORREENAL PD <LDOTIBAE "8400 0EREDLRORRAEID #00 SHPRETEDETYEDSETE)/OENEROEHERDABEEDEDERDERE DEY DELUNEED: Corey 4 as 100, the wholesale price index of all commodities was 149. The eorresponding price index of No. 1 northern wheat was 148; of cotton (New York), 191; corn, 186; and hogs, 118. From the low point since the beginning of 1921 these figures represent recoveries: for wheat, of 37 points; cotton, 99; corn, 111; and hogs, 37. Many readjustments are needed yet, but agriculture has turned an important corner and this change marks a vital step in the whole afterwar economic readjust- ment. Transportation This fiscal year marks the first occasion since long before the war, when our railroad facilities have been completely equal to the demands of the country. There were no car shortages of any consequence. There was a speeding up of delivery of all goods. This complete reconstruction, expansion, and growing efficiency in transportation facilities marks a fine accomplishment on the part of our railroad management. Its economic *From the annual report of the Secretary of Commerce effect is most far-reaching. Every car shortage is a strangulation in the movement of commodities which reduces price levels to the producer and increases them to the consumer. It disarranges the synchronizing of our industrial fabric and widens the margin all along the line between producer and consumer. There is stil! requirement for extension of terminals and readjust- ment of rates. Making our transportation facilities adequate to our needs is one of the greatest contributions toward our economic stability. Table I shows the essential items of progress in transportation as compared with the two previous fiscal years, Dawes Stabilization Plan European stabilization, which the Dawes plan may be expected to achieve, will bring about a revival in world trade and increased consumption of commodities, in which the United States is bound to have its share. This trade revival and increased consumption power should outweigh any increased competitive power which might be expected from the execution of the plan. It is not too much to say that this settlement of the vexed reparation problem, coming at the time it did, prevented another European collapse, with its inevitable repercus- sion on world trade and on the business of the United States. The Dawes plan is the first effort to solve the reparations question purely on a commercial and eco- nomic basis. Foreign Trade In the fiscal year under review exports increased 9 per cent in value as compared with the preceding fisca! year, while imports decreased 6 per cent. The net re- camneeanne NERO EE AR RAR RORE RARE “URNS ASTOR ERA ENERN ORT: 408 or-ewe raanemencenaenens ¢ Table IIl.—Foreign Trade of the United States (In millions of dollars) Per Cent Years Ended June 36— Increase, — 11924 from 1910-1914 ——-A—-- Aver- 1910- age) 1922 1923 1924 1914 192% Actual values: 1 Exports, merchandise 2,166 3,771 3,957 4,311 99.1 9.0 Imports, merchandise 1,689 2,608 3.781 3,554 110.4 (d)6.0 excess of exports: Merchandise ........ 477 1,163 17& 757 68.7 3380.7 Gold and silver...... 38 °449 °244 *°388 he Merchandise, gold and silver combined... . 515 714 *68 369 Values at 1923 (calendar year) prices, elimi- nating effect of price changes (ap- proximate) : Exports, merchandise 3,729 4,139 3,955 4,271 14.5 8.0 Imports, merchandise 2,452 3,386 4,015 3,586 46.2 (4)10.7 Excess of exports. 1,277 753 °60 686 ; *Excess of imports (d), decrease 1A CERRO FOREN RE NE: VFR: HONEH MOEN UBERE COREUCHT ESET RE: Bet te Se os MBER aoe. sore nee Aimee, sult of these changes in opposite directions was an in- crease in the excess of exports over imports from $176,- 000,000 in 1922-23 to $757,000,000 in 1923-24. While in absolute amount this is a larger export balance than in any year prior to the war, the percentage by which exports exceed imports is somewhat smaller than in most pre-war years. The movement is shown in Table IL Our foreign-trade balance sheet is, however, not at all complete without the inclusion of “invisible ex- change,” but as these figures are compiled upon the calendar year they cannot well be included here. The outstanding feature of our foreign trade in eom- modities is its strong, real growth since 1913. Our 1399 r jas pts + Ce a ee a “wig gee 07 ei hata ana EEE Tey eee edie heat etieand css acs connie han deme oenciramemnmecibasseisdaaneliienee mina 1400 total imports and exports in that fiscal year amounted to $4,279,000,000 against $7,865,000,000 in 1923-24. If we correct this difference by the depreciated buying power of the dollar we still find an increase of 18.2 per cent. This compares with decreases of 12 per cent for the United Kingdom, 14 per cent for France and 51.4 per cent for Germany (in each case based on the calendar year 1923 in comparison with 1913, and with corrections for currency depreciation). The gain in our total trade over the fiscal year 1913 is largely accounted for by the marked increases in our trade with Asia, Oceania, and South America. The value of trade with Asia increased 244 per cent and that with Oceania and South America 192 and 95 per cent respectively. Although the actual value of trade with Europe is greater than prior to the war, the gain is less than the increase in prices and the actual quan- tity of goods is smaller. This decline in the relative importance of Europe as a factor in our trade as other New Line of Multi-Stage Compressors High efficiencies, simple and strong construction and the minimizing of mechanical difficulties are claimed for the line of multi-stage centrifugal com- pressors recently placed on the market by the General Electric Co., Schenectady. The applications include blewing of blast furnaces, Bessemer converters, gas boosters, gas exhausters and in pneumatic material handling systems. The line of compressors includes water-cooled ma- chines designed to deliver from 300 to 60,000 cu. ft. per min. at pressures up to 30 lb. or more. The line in- cludes also two types of miniature, self-cooled ma- chines designed to deliver volumes of 250 to 1400 cu. ft. per min. at pressures from 2 to 6 lb. All machines may be equipped with either motor or turbine drive. The unit illustrated is a three-stage machine rated at 8500 cu. ft., 16 lb., and is driven by a D-51 Curtis steam turbine. Large cooling capacity is a feature, the conversion passages having been improved and the interstage pas- NEU UDADEOEEDONOOHRDTEDD OEE AADOEREOUMDOEED>HODENOOOND VEAL UTOLOOUDEELOT os oHREHOEH A TeHO VON OTEOOREDDASCHDEREEOOEEDONED ONE otNCHOTORN DOORS OTR = ; Multi-stage Centrifugal Compressor: Machines to deliver from 3000 to 60,000 cu. ft. are available, as well as two for volumes from 250 to 1400 cu. ft. sages simplified. Each complete unit has four bearings with an automatically lubricated flexible coupling. The bearings are supported by a foundation or base under the machine. The various governing devices for the machines have been improved, including constant vol- ume, constant suction and constant pressure governors. The multi-stage units are intended to supplement the line of single-stage compressors recently developed by the company. Installations of the new machines, which have been built singly for some time, include two 43,000 cu. ft., 25-lb. pressure units at the Mystic Iron Co., Boston. The Collins Mfg. Co., Lewistown, Pa., is running full at its local plant, with production on a basis of about 1300 doz. axes per week. The plant will main- tain on a capacity schedule indefinitely. The company recently succeeded to the plant and business of the Mann Axe & Tool Co., Mann’s Narrows, Pa. THE IRON AGE November 27, 1924 areas gain is in part a continuation of a gradual shift in this direction evident before the war and in part the result of the war’s serious impairment of European commercial strength. The unique situation of our foreign trade is to a considerable degree due to the support given by Con- gress and the administration to the activities of this department. The reorganization of this service for practical trade promotive purposes is well indicated by the growth of applications by business houses and farm cooperatives for assistance by the department. In 1921 these inquiries averaged less than 700 daily, whereas they now exceed 7500 daily and are heavily overtaxing the facilities of the organization. A recent query to export houses requesting estimates of their foreign transactions in which they were materially assisted by this department, either in sales promotion or in the prevention of losses, brought responses indicating a total exceeding $500,000,000. Strongest Welded Rail Joint Sought In a small house in the woods, where the noise of the test will be least disturbing, the Bureau of Stand- ards is seeking to determine which type of welded rail joint will last the longest under the impact of street car traffic. Specimens of every type in common use are being subjected to very rough treatment in order to determine their relative durability. The specimen under test consists of two short lengths of rail fastened together with a joint of the type to be studied. This specimen is mounted on two supports which in turn rest upon a heavy spring sup- ported anvil. A power hammer weighing 400 lb. strikes a blow on the joint once a second, being driven by an electric motor and cam shaft. The succession of heavy blows on the joint produces an effect similar to that from the wheels of cars running along the track and the number of blows required to break the joint indi- cates its relative strength. The test is a noisy one, even worse than the noise due to flat-wheeled cars or cupped rails. This test, which forms a part of a thorough investi- gation of rail joints, is being carried out in cooperation with the welded rail commission of the American Bu- reau of Welding and the American Electric Railway Association. Four common types of welded joints are being investigated: The fish plate weld, in which the ends of the rails and a pair of fish plates attached to their sides are welded together with an electric arc; the thermit weld; the butt weld, and the cast iron weld. Of these four, the fish plate weld is most used. The butt weld can be used only in new track, as it requires the ends of the rails to be pressed together and melted with an electric current. The thermit weld is used to a certain extent and consists in pouring molten metal into the joint, the steel being melted by the thermit process. Crucible Steel Co. Shows Gain in Orders Chairman H. S. Wilkinson of the Crucible Steel Co. of America, addressing stockholders at the recent annual meeting, stated that October orders had in- creased 22 per cent over September, and November business to date had gained correspondingly over Oc- tober. He added: “Volume of business is steadily increasing and we are of the opinion that it will continue to do so until we have normal business. Stocks are very low in the hands of our customers, perhaps the lowest they have been in ten years. The policy of buying from day to day is still encouraged by a majority of customers, but for the first time some of our large customers are seeking contracts for their requirements three to six months ahead. “We look forward to the most satisfactory and stable business that the steel companies have had since 1920. Crucible Steel is in excellent shape financially. It has made large improvements in its plants and in- creases in its facilities for taking care of raw prod- ucts.” Control of Stock in Warehouse Efficient Records Save Customers—Perpetual Inventory Maintained, with Frequent Checks and Annual Stock Taking ~~ ~ - BY DUNCAN G. MAC INNES* and book debts are protected carefully; but stock, upon which depends the life of the industry— whether it will continue operation or have goods to sell, or keep and build trade, and which is the chief artery of the business—is too often left to itself. It is neces- sary, then, that this source of business life be protected by an efficient stock-keeping system. Who can foretell the coming of a serious fire, or financial stringency which will make necessary the raising of more capital immediately? But the effects of such calamities can be avoided with good stock records. Fire insurance companies have much more S Tana assets are as important as cash. Currency sympathy with fire losers who can produce from their SHEETS PER BOX OR BUNDLE WEIGHT PER 100 SHEETS SSS == USEO FoR Purchasing Department Stock-Book Sheet (Above) Is for a Loose-Leaf Binder Raw Material Factory Requisition (Right) Records Amounts in Process vaults records that show their stock up to date. Like- wise, the banks will loan money more readily if they are shown records that are efficient. They have more assurance that their money, when it is invested in materials, will have protection. The story is told about two business men who, along with a number of others, suffered fire losses. They, however, were the only ones who commenced to re- build a few days after the fire. Upon investigation, it was found that when the fire threatened their prop- erty they had gone to their plants and taken away the permanent inventory records, which were kept in small filing cabinets, and were easily carried out. When they produced these, the insurance agents settled their claims much more readily than those of the firms which could show no stock records. It is strange why a dollar, when invested in stock, should have less value to some people than the actual cash. No business man would consider leaving the cash drawer or safe unlocked; yet, in some firms, that is what is done in the stock departments. It is just as serious not to have complete stock accounts as it is not to have recorded cash transactions. *34 Metcalfe Street, Toronto, Canada. 1401 When a salesman accepts an order for delivery he really gives a promissory note that delivery will be made in the time specified. It may be that the cus- tomer is completely ott of the article ordered, and every day means a loss of trade. If the manufacturer disappoints him, he must inconvenience his customers in turn. That often ends in the dealer going to another manufacturer with his order. There is no greater need for an efficient record in a manufacturing plant than in the raw material ware- house. Upon this stock depends to a large extent the success and future of the business. The firm suffers both from overstocking and from shortage of materials, In the first case capital is tied up needlessly, and in the RATIO PER BASE BOX TINPLATA_ tee ee, second men and machines are idle, goods are not being sold and overhead expenses are climbing up. The need of this record is particularly great to the firm that must procure its raw materials from a distant mill, or must have them made up to specification. It is not like a retail business that can obtain supplies from stock in a few hours or days. There are many systems in use, but few are as simple and as efficient as that which a large Canadian firm using sheet metals evolved after other systems had failed. Trouble was continually cropping up in the raw-material department. Sizes of material were being depleted without reordering; books and actual stocks did not agree, and there were mary other errors. As the raw materials had to be obtained from some distance, and took weeks to obtain, this firm was often seriously inconvenienced. Now the actual records are kept in two sets of books, one kept in the raw-material warehouse and the other in the purchasing department. Loose-leaf binders are used, but card indexes could be used just as efficiently. The two sets of records are alike, with the exception that the ones in the purchasing depart- ment show the use to which each withdrawal of stock ” fe - F Ailliee vn. tated eat a Bre bee ned ae: eat Setar — 7 i intoente Saber senna ee ee : 1402 has been put. The other set is entirely a stock record. The totals of these books must compare at all times. If they are found to differ, the physical stock is taken and the difference located. The origin of the requisitions for raw material is in the finished goods warehouse. When a certain article is seen to be getting down to minimum, the factory office is informed immediately. There is made out the factory instructions, and a requisition in duplicate for the material. This order then is taken to the purchas- ing department stockkeeper. He consults his records and, if there is sufficient in stock, initials it and keeps the duplicate copy. The original is sent to the raw- material warehouse. When he authorizes an order to be filled he consults not only the stock records but the duplicates of other orders that have been passed but not yet taken from stock. This obviates all danger of passing more orders than there is material in stock. When the material is taken to the factory, the exact quantity is noted on the requisition by the order clerk. This slip is then given to the stockkeeper in the warehouse, who marks it off his books, and makes a notation on the order of the balance of that size showing in his records. Each night these requisitions are sent to the purchasing department stockkeeper. He removes the duplicates from his file and destroys them, and then deducts on his books the quantities of material used. If the balance is not the same as that of the warehouse books, the actual stock is taken, or the two books compared to see where the difference occurs. It can be readily seen how, if these books are care- fully kept, stock records cannot but be accurate. Under special conditions—as when material is needed in a hurry, and there is not time to get a requisition passed, or when the men in the factory are careless about the quantity of material obtained—the actual stocks may not compare with the books. The order clerks in the warehouse of this firm are so impressed with the need to have an accurate record of raw material stocks that such conditions rarely arise. For each stock size there is a set maximum and minimum limit. The maximum, in this case, is the average yearly consumption, and the minimum is gov- erned by the time required to get new material. If the time limit during the busy season is three months, the minimum stock is the requirements for four months. When the stockkeeper sees that a stock is getting down to the minimum, he notifies the purchasing agent in writing. As an additional check, a report is made out once a week of all the stock that is getting down to the lowest amount required. On this report is shown the stock, amount on order, amount requisitioned by the factory but not yet drawn, and the use of the material. If there is an overstock, through the falling off in demand for certain articles, this is reported, so that some other size may be substituted. Aids in Buying These aids make buying a simple and a sure propo- sition. The purchasing agent has the assurance that, unless there is an unprecedented falling off or addi- tional consumption of the stock sizes, he is not making a mistake in buying the usual quantity. When the order is placed, a copy of it is given to the stockkeeper, who enters it in an order book similar to the stock books, having a page for each size of material. Then the copy of the order is held by him until it is acknowl- edged by the mill. The date of delivery promised or specified is entered with the order number and name of the mill in a diary, under the date that delivery should be made. If on that day the material is not in transit, he writes or telegraphs to the mill to urge delivery. When the shipping notice and invoices are received a copy of the bill of lading is given to the traffic depart- ment in order to trace the shipment, and the sizes in transit are marked off the order book. When a shipment is received it is checked carefully in the receiving warehouse with the shipping record, and then posted into the stock books. Each day a record of all goods received is sent to the purchasing department order clerk who, in turn, posts the new THE IRON AGE November 27, 1924 stock into his books, marks it off the order books as being received, and checks it with the invoices. This serves to keep the stock books daily up to date, and keeps a close check on goods received with those paid for. Unless there is unusual activity in some departments - of the factory, or the shippers fall down badly, there are no out-of-stock reports. But when this does happen a note is taken of the size, the mill is telegraphed to rush delivery, and the orders from the factory for that size are held in the factory office. Once a week this office makes out a report of orders that are being held for stock and sends it to the purchasing agent, It serves as a weekly reminder. Of course, it does not mean that the manufactured article is out of stock, because a similar system is maintained in the finished goods department. They have enough goods on hand to fill orders for a certain length of time. Following Up on Orders The follow-up system on order is worthy of note. If, when ordering, a delivery date is specified, it is not let go at that. The stock clerk must see that the order is shipped on that day, or know the reason why it is not. For this purpose he has several form letters. One is used when the order is not acknowledged imme- diately, and others when the order is not shipped on the date given. These letters are sent at close intervals until delivery is made. The system of entering prom- ises in a daily diary keeps the situation of every order before him from day to day as, when an order has not been delivered on the day specified, he writes, and then enters it up three or four days ahead. This gives no chance of forgetting. Inventory is taken once a year. When the stock has been estimated the figures are compared with the books, but unless there is a great difference between the totals the book figures are not altered. This is because it has been found from past experience that in most cases the book figures are more accurate than the estimates. The inventory clerk has little or no check on his figures, but the stock book clerks check each other up from day to day. To keep the executives in touch with the stocks and materials on order, a report is made out from the pur- chasing department books at the end of every month. This report shows the stock, amount on order, and the consumption for the past month of each size. From other monthly and annual totals the busy executive can see at a glance how the situation compares with that of other months. A few years ago this firm began to manufacture a line of goods from a new material. As this was under the experimental stage, and the stock sizes were being changed so frequently, it was not kept under this system for two years. It was not put too soon under the system as used for other materials, for there were found in stock some sizes of materials enough to last for seven and eight months, when it took only three weeks to get the stock from the mills. The factory was continually running out of other material, and valuable orders were being lost because they could not be filled in the time specified. It was not so much a matter of bad buying as it was of inefficient stock records. When placed under the system this particular stock was soon as efficiently taken care of as the other raw materials. With very little trouble to the stock keeper, less in fact, there is less tie-up of capital, and the factory is never stuck for stock. Any change of the stock-keeping system may appear to be a big job, but it is a change that is well worth while when it is going to mean better business and larger profits. An attractive illustrated poster is being distributed by the Department of the Interior, Washington. It de- picts the principal activities of the department through it various bureaus and other offices. There are 14 items represented in the poster, each with a half-tone and some information regarding the particular activity represented. November 27, 1924 Pinch Pointing Machine May Operate Automatically Conical points on wood screw and drive screw blanks, and “pyramid” points on escutcheon pins and wire nails, are produced by the machine shown in the accompanying illustration, which has been placed on the market by the Waterbury Farrel Foundry & Ma- chine Co., Waterbury, Conn. The machine is provided with a hopper feed and COTOD DRODEADTNERD OED LONEDIEAErOOSORONORSORBOOERAD C))HeRTEEs HrOHONE ooERO OUD Screw Blanks, Pins and Wire Nails Are Pointed Automatically UNORORNNAE SHU HEEL HTOREDEE GO HONEY HOO LUNEDHNELAE HOLSEOOOLUORDHORRON Sa pEOD EREENNS chute, as shown, which delivers the headed blanks into a notched dial in an index head. The chute and index head are adjustable to permit blanks up to 2% in. long under the head to be pointed. The maximum capacity for diameter is % in. The index head is located at the same angle as the feed chute so that the blanks pass directly to the dial, a construction which is stressed as simplifying the operation. As soon as the dial has indexed 90 deg. and has brought the blank into line with the dies, the die in the gate advances, partly displaces the blank from the dial, and pinches its end against the stationary die attached to the bed. Means are provided for prevent- ing the blanks from tipping in the dial and for assur- ing that the points will be symmetrical and of uniform length. As soon as a blank has been pointed it is pushed back into the dial by a spring-actuated slide; then the dial continues to index and carry the blank around until it gravitates from the dial. The dial is indexed by a ratchet and pawl mechan- ism in the index head, actuated by the gate, and a lock- ing device is provided in the index head to prevent the dial from moving during the pointing operation. The connection between the gate and index head consists of a spring which acts as a solid connection on the for- ward stroke of the gate and yields on the backward or indexing stroke should a blank become lodged improp- erly in the dial. The blank is released on the next movement of the gate, thus correcting the trouble auto- matically. The dies are rectangular pieces of hardened steel formed to pinch the wire and fastened in steel die-hold- ers by clamp screws. The dies, which project from the holders, are made to a standard length so that for dif- ferent diameters of wire it is necessary to change the dies. Four bumpers extending from the face of the die-holders are intended to prevent the dies from chip- ping when the moving die is in its maximum forward position. The moving die-holder is equipped with two guide pins which are alined with holes in the stationary die-holder to facilitate matching the dies when set- ting up. : A 2 hp. motor is employed to drive the machine, which operates at the rate of 100 to 160 strokes per min., depending on the size of the point. The weight of the machine is 1375 Ib. THE IRON AGE 1403 Work-Handling Device Feature of Centering Machine A new work-handling device, which is operated by a foot treadle and is claimed greatly to facilitate op- eration of the machine, is a feature of the improved design of the duplex hand-centering machine of the Pratt & Whitney Co., Hartford. The work-handling mechanism controlled by the foot treadle permits of operating the drills with one hand and of loading and unloading the work with the other hand. The possible output of the machine is thereby increased and the work of the operator light- ened. The new work-holding device is made up of two work slides carrying an adjustable V-block and a movable jaw, the latter being actuated by the foot treadle, so that the work is held by a V and a flat which holds it immovable. A micrometer dial is pro- vided on the front of each work slide, one turn of which changes the adjustment for diameter of work % in. by moving the V-block. A compensating device on the slide provides for a variation of 1/16 in. either way from the nominal size of the work being centered. Five sets of jaws for work ranging from \ to 1% in. in diameter are available, each set providing for two diameters. A spring plunger is arranged to return the work slide to its starting position when pressure on the foot treadle is released. The work is loaded in the machine by hand and held in place by the foot treadle. The bed and heads of the machine are the same as in the previous model, which was described at length in THE IRON AGE of Nov. 16, 1922. Each head has its own built-in motor and two-speed gear box. The heads are arranged so that a single lever feeds both drills at once and the work is centered at each end simultaneously. Stops permit of setting the machine either to make the same size hole in each end, or to center to exact length between holes, as desired. The Duplex Hand Centering Machine. A new work-holding de vice operated by foot treadle is intended to facilitate operation Pe ee Tc en control lever is connected to a plunger pump so that cutting fluid is supplied to each drill each time it is fed into the work. The motors are controlled by a single snap switch. The machine is designed for work from 2% to 18 in. in length. The floor space occupied is 2% x 4% ft. Plans have been filed for the erection of a concrete and steel building to be used as a core department of its plant at No. 1 Austin Street, Buffalo, by the Ameri- can Radiator Co. Detain. areata 3 Solan gat eee " ve Sa ceeadid SE aera ae PPP iad at, a, wis ga een eee ee ae ee ae Hardness Numbers and Their Relation Absence of a Real Basis for Comparison—Structure of Metals—Ideal Physical State— True Hardness BY DR. H. P. HOLLNAGEL* HE question has often been asked, “Why are hard- [ness numbers such as those determined by the sclerescope and Brinell machines not readily trans- ferable to one another?” The predominant reason for this apparent impossibility is the lack of a real basis of comparison, there being no real unit of hardness. If we say “Hardness is the cohesive resistance to def- ormation,” this has different physical meanings for the perfect and imperfect solid states. As the latter term is one we are continually interpreting in our daily labors, the former will here be understood as follows: The nearest approach to a perfect solid consists in a crystalline structure in which the mass is made up of atoms spaced with geometric regularity. The Ideal Physical State An ideal mass of the sort mentioned in the preced- ing paragraph could be said to have perfect elasticity. This would require that its atomic displacements obey regularly laid down or they consist of grains which are pieces of such crystals disposed purely according to chance distribution. Under such circumstances they are compressible only insofar as their atomic and ran- dom grain structures permit of slight deformation. Materials, which under stress suffer infinitesimally small displacements before rupture occurs, are said to be brittle. The proportionality limit (a), the yield point (b), and the ultimate strength (c), all practically coin- cide. These exist because of the imperfect character of the elasticity. As is well known, (a) is the value of the stress beyond which the strain is no longer propor- tional to the deforming stress; (b) is that stress, below the ultimate limit and above the proportionality limit at which the material suffers maximum permanent def- ormation per unit stress; (c) is that stress at which the material, having previously markedly and definitely changed its geometrical dimensions permanently, rup- tures (brittle materials excepted). In the change of PEPER Fig. 1.—A Schematic Representation of the Pure Crystalline State of Metals. The various possible crystals range from a to d, left to right Hooke’s law, that is, they would be propertional to the stress causing them; and the ratio of stress to strain produced would be constant for all values of the stress. There would be no limit beyond which permanent defor- mation would appear, nor would the material definitely rupture. Atoms would return to their original position, due to the energy stored in the material as a result of displacement. There would be no loss of energy on return because of interfering atoms or molecules and no heat of dissipation within the material because of no internal friction. A body, therefore, perfectly elastic could not be per- manently deformed as it is probable that no deforma- tion of such body could take place without a change of the shape of the body. It is also conceivable that a body of perfect rigidity would have the highest degree of hardness and that materials of less rigidity would have hardnesses to varying extents. This latter con- dition is that which is of greater interest and will be examined in greater detail. Metals in Practice There are in nature no materials of perfect elastic- ity and most substances exhibit this property under stress only throughout a very limited range. Because of this, materials are compressible but not perfectly so; if they were, their volumes could be diminished in- definitely. If metals are crystalline throughout they may be, as will be observed later, made up of atoms *Department of Physics, General Electric Co., Lynn, Mass. form of such material, that property which features its flow or deformation under tension along one dimen- sion is known as ductility while that which characterizes its flow in all directions under stress without appre- ciable development of strain, is termed plasticity. A perfectly rigid body would be characterized by impenetrability. As there are none such, most mate- rials are penetrable to some degree, which is in part due to their plastic property. If such materials are subjected to impulse forces, they may or may not be deformed permanently, depending upon the magnitude of the applied impact, the hydrostatic containing effect of the material impacted and the duration of impact. In a metal which has been locally deformed, the sur- rounding material backs up that portion which is strained. At the stabile value of the static load the force acting upon the material is equalized by the reac- tion of the local and surrounding metal. This may be designated, if you choose, as the hydrostatic containing effect of the metal. For example: Cast iron being very brittle would, if in small pieces, rupture readily under localized stress; if sustained by larger masses the local stresses could be much higher. The factors referred to are determinable by the resilience of the material. The energy of impact less the energy of deformation is a measure of the resili- ence, that is, the work done in causing the impacting body to rebound, (neglecting internal losses). The ma- terial may, by recurrent action of impulse stresses, be caused to change its volume and form to that of a thin 1404 November 27, 1924 sheet, in which case the material is not only plastic but malleable. Structure of Metals From X-ray analysis it has been possible to estab- lish that the atoms of metals are systematically laid down at the apices of polyhedrons as well as in definite positions relative to them.’ Any metal in the pure crys- talline state may be pictured as being constructed of “building blocks” such as are represented schematically in Fig. 1. These units may be either cubes or hexa- hedrons. If an atom is located in the geometrical center of the cube as in (a), it is designated as “body cen- tered” if disposed in the center of each face as in (d), it is “faced centered.” The hexagonal prism indicated shows a triangular prism with atoms regularly dis- tributed midway along the three elements and is re- ferred to as a “close packed” hexagonal type. A mole- cular structure would appear as in Fig. 2 which may be considered as a portion of the structure representing a lead ore (lead sulphide or galena). Here the black and white spheres are indicative of the lead and sul- phur atoms. A mass of pure metal, if disposed in a manner to give it maximum strength, would probably be a crys- talline mass laid down with the above regularity. The planes in which the atoms are most densely packed probably manifest the maximum strength and presum- ably the greatest resistance to deformation.’ The grains usually referred to in most discussions concerning metals are of this character. They are disposed, how- ever, in a variety of orientations with respect to one another because of the lack of control over the crystal growth. It is impossible from the present state of our knewledge to control the growth of large crystalline masses; consequently there arises interferences between units and the distribution of atomic and structural forces becomes very complicated. If such material is broken up into exceedingly fine material, the crystals may become of such magnitude as to be just visible with the high-power microscope; others still smaller will be visible only by means of an ultra microscope. The larger type probably lie in a matrix of the smaller kind which undoubtedly forms from metal which at one time was locally fused. Be- cause of the surface tension, this has assumed the tough state known as amorphous metal. Metals which have been plastically deformed always exhibit this state to some degree. A theory of hardness by slip interference of metals" has attracted considerable attention in recent times and offers a satisfactory picture of the manner in which such deformation may take place. In accord- ance with a structure indicated in Fig. 1 successive layers of atoms may be had as a result of the succes- sive addition of cube after cube of this material (called a space lattice). Such layers of atoms may be likened to a stack of playing cards which may glide one upon the other. Planes in which the larger population of atoms lie and which glide upon one another under stress are termed slip planes. When considerable pressure is exerted upon a crystal in a system of mixed interdis- posed crystals, the crystals give along slip planes until minute portions become “keyed” in the region between them. Keying of crystals may be likened to the wedg- ing action of abrasive particles between surfaces in motion with respect to one another. In this manner slip planes ultimately become fixed and the material hardens more and more as a result of cold work. True Hardness The true hardness of the most perfect type of crys- talline material would be considered to be the pressure necessary to displace an atom from its position in the lattice (at a particular temperature). Since the force with which an atom is repelled by its neighbors is the true force of restitution and resistance, there exists a certain depth beyond which deformation will cease to 1X-Ray and Crystal Structure, by W. H. Bragg. 2X-Ray Crystal Analysis A.S.S.T., Sept., 1924, by W. P. Davey. 2“Slip Interference Theory of Metals,” Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, 1922, Jeffries and Archer. THE IRON AGE 1405 oceur because of the difficulty of penetration of one atom into another. Beyond this point rupture takes place by atoms shearing past each other under which condition true hardness has no significance. Displacement of individual atoms cannot, however, de dealt with. The hardness for a crystal is therefore determined over a small area and has an average value because of the varied degree of interpenetration of the atoms resulting from the stress distribution on this area. For this reason physically at least the Moh scale of hardness has significance and as such is relatively satisfactory. It is a mineralogical scale based upon one crystal scratching another in which diamond (10), corundum (9), topaz (8), quartz (7) . . . tale (1), are given in the order of their respective hardnesses. The numbers assigned to these materials have no physical dimensions and therefore no physica! signifi- cance. Furthermore, “Diamond cuts diamond” which indicates the indefiniteness of the scale. In other words, the interference of one crystal lattice with another even though of the same system may cause such a degree Fig. 2.—A Molecular Structure Considered as a Portion of That Representing Lead Ore of hardness that one crystal may scratch the other. This may be due to a so-called “grainy boundary” of two crystals which is not at all a regular geometrical configuration, but one in which, due to interference, there is an increased density of atoms in addition to irregularity of disposition. In dealing with the hardness of atoms one is con- cerned with the distance, d, between them, the so-called lattice constant. If with an average taken over a large number of atoms, as in the case of a hardness measured by pressure, a distance which is an average. taken over a variety of depths must be characteristic. This is be- cause the very large number of atoms concerned in such a measurement are not at all displaceable to the same depth; stress is rarely applied with entire uniformity because of the imperfect flatness of the surfaces. Constitution of Metals Metals, as we know them, consist of crystals of all sizes and shapes. Each unit is in itself of the character indicated in Fig. 1 and the crystalline aggregates are composed of numbers of such units forming independ- ent crystals which may or may not interfere. They have all possible orientations and are probably sur- rounded by amorphous material which acts more or less as a cement to them. The random distribution of crys- talline aggregates is characteristic of engineering ma- terials. They are neither pure, nor regularly crys- talline, generally speaking, and it is only an average consideration of hardness which can have significance. Le Sela aa " ee ee aerate “ gnc /iatentetdota rain ate a ae eran ae' CE ae eT sap ig Btn ay Ae ati me nlhpettengle catia a bid es oka mae le er — Sa ee ee en ne! ad 1