The Iron Age 1924-09-18: Vol 114 Iss 12

THE IRON AGE New York, September 18, 1924 tSTABLISHED 1855 VOL. 114, No. 12 Structural Segregation in Gray Iron Normal Occurrence and Practical Significance of Non- homogeneous Structures—Relation to Composition and Physical Properties BY J. tural segregations occurring in gray irons and semi-steels, and indicates the practical significance of their non-homogeneous structures. The segregations especially considered are those of graphitic carbon flakes. While the amount and size of these flakes are well known to affect the properties of the metal, their exact distribution (and its significance) have received little attention. Some consideration is given the normal variations of pearlite and ferrite. Effects of phosphorus distribution are explained. Ef- fects of abnormalities in composition, etc., are not con- sidered. Structure Varies: It is common experience that the general structure varies with the depth of section; that is, with the cooling rate. Fracture shows that struc- ture, particularly in heavy sections, often varies quite markedly from the outside of the casting to the center. In sections of moderate size, say up to 2 in., fractures of better grade irons show little variation from the out- side to the center. On very small sections (like piston rings) we sometimes find that pesky discontinuity in structure, the hard or chilled spot. Such structural differences can be seen in the fracture without mag- nification. However, if we take a bar of apparently uniform fracture and examine it at rather low magni- fication we are likely to find a structural segregation of great practical significance. (The following para- graph on crystallization is inserted in order to make the subsequent data clearer to the general reader.) Crystallization Dendritic: Pure metals and eutec- tics solidify at definite temperatures. Alloys, like cast iron, (iron-carbon alloy), usually freeze over a range of temperature. In other words, they go through a pasty stage, some parts of the metal being solidified while the remainder is still liquid. Fig. 1 (iron-carbon [tir paper points out some of the normal struc- *Metallurgist, Niles Tool Works, Hamilton, Ohio. It may be said that steel, which after proper treatment . (in moderate sections) is apparently quite homogeneous in crystal structure, has been shown to retain persistent dendritic -egregation to a remarkable degree. SPOTEALLD oad PNT sernnnse UES TLUUEL TETRA 1.20001 SPUN EOE ANREP UONN NEILSEN A. BOLTON* diagram) shows where this range is in ordinary cast irons. The first formed crystals have time for growth before complete solidification takes place. The effects of this initial crystallization (as will be shown later) often persist in spite of the subsequent changes met on complete cooling. The initial crystallization is dend- ritic, the crystals building up in the pine tree or fern- like structures. Testing Methods Limited: It is only too true that analysis alone gives very little idea of the engineering properties of cast iron. This is because irons of identi- cal analysis may have greatly different structural make-ups, and hence widely varying physical proper- ties. Years ago the common practice was to grade iron by fracture. This practice was discarded by foundry- men because the fracture of the pig often had little re- semblance to the fractures of irons melted from it. Fracture appearances are difficult to record or to ex- press in any definite measurable terms. Notwithstand- ing these objections, study of fracture is a valuable method even today. The great success of microscopic methods in reveal- ing the actual structures of alloys (especially of steels) has lent encouragement to the application of microscopic methods to study of cast irons. The re- sults obtained by various workers in the cast iron field prove the value of the method, and the last 10 years have shown active growth of its appreciation by prac- tical men. Nevertheless, the writer wants to point out some of the definite limitations to practical application of microscopic methods to study of cast iron. First, cast irons are not uniform in microstructure. If we photograph a section at say 200 dia. the photo- micrograph may give an erroneous impression of the structure of the bar because insufficient area has been taken into consideration. At such a magnification the area examined is very small and it is impossible to pick a representative area for photography. This trouble is easily and satisfactorily overcome by examination at lower magnification, covering an area of % in. dia., SACLELPOLSPORSHORESABITOND CPRESELDON AS ABN Sam Mat NEPA (4 iron is not homogeneous in structure, as it has numerous structural segrega- tions, mostly dendritic. These segregations influence the physical properties of the metal. In this article, crystallization is reviewed; limitations of methods of analysis, microscopy and fracture are indicated and primary crystallization of cast iron is explained. The distribution of graphite is dependent largely on the type of primary crystal- lization .f the metal. steadite. Research in the author’s laboratory indicates t important indicator of cast iron’s physical properties. Brief mention is made of arrangement of pearlite, ferrite and t graphite flakes are the most The relations among structural segregation, composition and physical properties are carefully detailed from results of tests on commercial irons. PEVOULENENON TINO LONIRIREL SEY frrereage mnt HURELERLL SRABUPUTTARTUNASLAS TA HALLETT OPES TY Sota 685 {.AAORROSUPPUDNS HDA: TEES RERGR RENE 171 STRELA STI NR? 8 | 4 i MIE IEF wR — inode ao mm.) Tih AE a 10 pega prmtaga 686 THE IRON AGE or better. Figs. 2, 3 and 4 illustrate the point. Visual examination of the polished surface is often very in- structive. Second, cast iron is a very complex mate- rial. Variables are so numerous that great caution must be used in drawing conclusions. Notwithstanding these objections, microscopy is one of the most valuable A xX a. s a —+—+}— oe Liquid Metal Iron with 4 Dissolved Iron Carbide L s & 2010 oD utectic Freezes b v 6 | . “ | e SI ie S gT > S a. VI J 5 s ee © ~~ ry 19900 \ 345% IT 2.0 30 I'@7%) 43 N'G%) Per Cent Carbon Fig. 1—Diagram for Pure Iron Carbon Alloys. The presence of impurities changes the location of the vari- ous points to some extent. Thus the percentage of carbon required for the eutectic (4.3 in pure alloys) is around 3.7 in commercial irons. The pearlitic transformation temperature is about 1345 deg. Fahr. in the semi-steels used here The lines XX’, Y Y’ bound the carbon ranges of commercial cast irons (2.7—4.0). The large majority of irons contain 3 to 3.75 per cent carbon. It is evident that with lower carbon more prima austenite will separate (along the line FB for irons of X composition) Also, the longer time in the range GH, the larger the dendrites. The bulk of graphite must come from the _ eutectic ledeburite (Z Z’) Graphitization takes place from B C to D E (the author thinks that there may be some graphitization above B C and below D EB). tools we have—indeed, in research work it is indispen- sable. Crystallization of White Iron: When molten, cast iron is a solution of cementite (iron-carbide) in iron. As explained above, commercial irons freeze over a range of temperature. In this range, primary crystals of aus- September 18, 1924 tenite (prima austenite) separate as indicated in the diagram. With lower total carbon, more prima austenite is formed, and with slower cooling, through the range GH (Fig. 1), these prima austenite neuclei have a good chance to grow into larger dendrites. These dendrites, from their mode of formation, are progressively richer in carbon from their cores to their bounding surfaces. When the temperature has reached about 2070 deg. Fahr. the remaining liquid freezes as the austenite- cementite eutectic, ledeburite (line BCI, Fig. 1). From 2070 to 1290 deg. Fahr. cementite separates from the supersaturated austenite (line DB, Fig. 1). At 1290 deg. Fahr. the remaining austenite (now about 0.90 per cent carbon) is transformed into pearlite. On etching white iron with picric acid, the pearlite (following the original austenitic outlines) appears dark, the cementite white. The cementite, being the last to freeze, forms “female” dendrites between the original austenitic dendrites (See Fig. 5). Some of this cementite appears as structureless dendrites, while some occurs as the typical honeycomb eutectic (lede- burite). The initial graphitization occurs along the borders of these cementitic structures. In ordinary irons this graphitization continues until all the free cementite has graphitized. This original or primary graphitization, the writer feels, should be distinguished from the re-arranged graphite occurring as a result of grain growth. The writer suggests the names “pri- mary” and “secondary” to indicate these different stages of graphitization. Since the “primary” graphite follows the cementite areas, it is found in various striations and other types of segregation, in irons in which cooling was swift enough to prevent much secondary graphitization. Typical examples of such segregations are shown in Figs. 6, 7 and 8, 9 and 10. Dendritic segregations (such as those shown in Fig. 6) can be seen by the unaided eye on a carefully pol- ished surface of cast iron. Such irons may be said to possess a somewhat acicular macrostructure (Fig. 11.)* Most strong irons possess marked indications of such a structure, indicating that cooling and composition have been so adjusted that the graphite is in the more finely divided primary form and that the metal is rather low in total carbon.’ Influence of Ferrite and Pearlite: Generally speak- ing, ferrite merely follows the graphite. The more graphite the more ferrite. Ferrite first forms along the graphite flakes, as shown in Fig. 12. Of course ferrite, in replacing the stronger pearlite, weakens the metal. At the same time, the graphite is increased * Acicular means interlacing needle-like structure. Macrostructure means structure apparent, either without magnification or visible on low magnification. ° Prima-austenite indicating carbon content less than the eutectic. Fig. 2—The Structure of the Iron Is Not Always Uniform. For example, one part of this micrograph shows coarse graphite, the other fine. High power microscopy could show only one part. Which is representative, the coarse or the fine? Macro- scopic methods overcome such objections. (100 dia. unetched.) the dark pearlite (formerly austenite). 100 dia., etched with picric acid. Fig. 3—Structure of white iron. The white-is free cementite, dendrites. (Graphite black, cementite white, pearlite gray.) 75 dia., etched and slightly repolished Fig. 4—Graphitization just started along cementite i a ll al j September 18, 1924 THE IRON AGE 687 Meee cans neRseneen ts nesUREDURSuBtOREE® oHEAUEER’ Hoge ne prises rseananeneun tnae Fig. 5—Graphitization of Cementite Completed. 75 dia., unetched. Fig. 6—White iron, showing the honeycomb eutectic ledeburite. 75 dia. picric acid. Fig. 7—Gray iron, graphite groupings, resembling outlines of ledeburite groups. (On slower cooling the author finds that this type graphite group seems to arrange itself into whorls, as Fig. 8). 75 dia. un- etched. Fig. 8—Showing intermediate stage of graphitization along female dendrites of cementite. Magnification 100 dia., slight etching. Fig. 9—Long dendrite form, showing extent of growth of this size of segregation in ordinary test bar. 75 dia. unetched. Fig. 10—Unique graphite formation found in quickly cooled piece of iron Unetched, 125 dia. both in amount and size, accelerating the lowering in strength. Ferritic metal is hard to finish, as it tears up badly under the tool. It is weak and open grain.’ Pearlitic Irons: Pearlitic, or eutectoid iron, con- ? tains about 0.80 per cent combined carbon. With over SH at 0.60 to 0.70 per cent combined carbon most irons appear ete almost wholly pearlitic. (Fig. 13.) The laminar yt \ structure of pearlite is shown in Fig. 14. All-high-test irons are pearlitic, but the converse is not true. Pear!- Fig l1l—Acicular Macrostructure ‘Annealed irons are not considered. (See Fig. 2) ts es eo , “ > : , a ‘yg / & th outs es, c Fig. 12—Ferrite Bands Along Graphite Plakes. Broad, almost white bands are ferrite, in center of which graphite flakes appear gray. Pearlite shows some of thumbprint structure. A weak, open iron. 100 dia. plerie acid. Fig. 13—General pearlitic structure of low-phosphorus iron. Approximate eutectoid matrix, combined carbon about 6.70 per cent. 100 dia., picric acid. Fig. 14—-Structure of pearlite. 585 dia., pleric acid RR re i Hl San Seperate ERMA eee er eR emme PIPE iw. hoa > x » ' Eg RB Par Boy 8 le P 688 THE IRON AGE September 18, 1924 08) OU HNNUTOANNDONDENAONONERONDTY cAneEDEDERDODOERHED NORD Fig. 15 dia., Steadite in High Phosphorus Iron. picric acid,) Fig. 16—Steadite in low less than 10 per cent phosphorus. 50 dia., picric acid. Fig. 19 phosphorus weak points. itic iron. contains pearlite, graphite and steadite. If such iron has little steadite and a small amount of pri- mary graphite very uniform®:<:di tributed, it will be very strong. Various processes (such as ti ‘erman “pearlitic” cast iron) are designed to so reculate the cooling through the critical ranges i} . the avove conditions are met. The writer has obtained many interesting Fig. 17 structure. Network Macro- Phospho.uus structures often make up this method results on small sized pieces. When one thinks of such processes applied to castings of 25,000 to 100,000 lb., he strikes some snags. First, how handle the casting in cooling? Second, (and here is the real snag!) how get uniform cooling This dendrite shows a typical eutectic iron. (0.17 phosphorus, 600 dia. picric acid.) Fig. 18—Phosphorus forms coalesce on slow cooling Examination of this picture-shows how the fracture follows along the flakes of graphite, the Low structure. (Phosphorus 1.15 per cent. 610 This is not an eutectic structure and probably contains much magnification throughout the heavy sections? The bad effects ‘of this can be minimized, but that is another story. Structure of Pearlite: Pearlite occurs in a laminar formation as shown in Fig. 14. The laminations may be fine, or they may be coarser, depending on the rate of cooling. Very rapid cooling produces an almost sor- bitic structure. By means of heat treatment, marten- sitic and other transition forms can be produced, exact- ) Fig. 20—Macro- structure of Whorl Forma- tion ly as is the case with steel. The condition of pearlite is hardly a major factor in the structure of commercial cast irons. It indicates the cooling rate, but one can tell more by examination of the graphitic structure. Effects of Phosphorus: Phosphorus formations do Fig. 21 * ae —~Coarse Graphite Structure of Weak Iron. 50. dia. unetched , en ~. ph i. SS oF), a tint SY sre VY ak : 7 : ey 4 ; Pad “ , - a. * Rio 20 Fig. 22—Medium Graphite, Fairly Large Whorls, Moderate Strength. 50 dia. unetched Small, Very Evenly Distributed Lervesvenrornevevereneen stone Graphite, Indicating a High Test Iron. 50 dia. unetched eveveversneneresseupennenescennennenensneneveneneverenapenent en4e#01@ September 18, 1924 not seem to have any very marked influence on the strength of ordinary irons. The phosphorus rich parts (steadite, Figs. 15 and 16) are the last to freeze. Hence, they are found between the crystals of the other struc- tures. If the sections are small and the phosphorus fairly high, the steadite is often found around the pearl- ite grains, giving a structure like that seen in Fig. 17. If the cooling is slow and the phosphorus fairly high, the steadite coalesces, as shown in Fig. 18. If the cooling is very slow (and the metal almost all ferritic) the steadite dendrites seem to be largely absorbed by the ferrite. Some writers claim that phosphorus net- work is essential to high strength. This is not neces- sarily true. Some low phosphorus irons of very high strength show no network. Rather rapid cooling, which is productive of high strength, also makes network structure in higher phos- phorus irons. Steadite, meaning the phosphorus-rich formation in cast iron, is not necessarily eutectic. (See Figs. 15 and 16). The main practical effect of phos- phorus seems to be that of a hardener, reducing the tool life, and hence the machinability of high test irons." Structure of Weak Iron: Low strength iron pos- sesses a characteristic dark open fracture. The graphite flakes are large. Fractures follow along these flakes, as shown in Fig. 19. Careful visual examination of the polished surface of such an iron often shows charac- teristic “whorl” formations, as illustrated in Fig. 20. Occasionally there is some evidence of large dendritic growth, but the graphite has usually rearranged itself (due to growth) so that the semblance is lost. The Pearlite is last to decompose sale stendite dendrite THE IRON AGE 689 macrostructures of low strength iron often resemble (to the writer’s imagination) the frost structures seen on window glass. There is marked local segregation of graphite, and high magnification would show some areas heavy in graphite while others would be practi- cally free of flakes. A glance at Fig. 21 shows how essential it is to consider the structure as a whole. The etched sample of such an iron would show a large amount of ferrite along the graphite flakes. The stead- ite dendrites are large and there is little evidence of network formations. Structure of Medium Irons: Medium strength irons show a fairly good fracture. They often possess a net- work macrostructure. (Fig. 17.) This network is smaller in the higher test irons. Graphitization is rather uneven in such irons. (Fig. 22.) Usually there is quite a bit of whorl formations resulting from graphitization and partial growth of eutectic cement- ite, ie., such strength irons in small sections usually have pretty high carbon. The matrix may be nearly eutectoid. Structure of High-Test Irons: The majority of high- test irons are low in total carbon and silicon. Their greatest strength is in the moderate sections (% to 1% in.). Fracture is light gray and very fine. Macrostructure usually has considerable dendritic formations around the edge (Figs. 9 and 11) w*'h fine network toward the center. The microstructu ¢ shows small graphite throughout, with some dendritic forma- tions. Some exceptionally high-test irons showed re- markably uniform d ‘tri ~tion of graphite. (Fig. 23.) All high-test irons utectoid, or “pearlitic” irons. > . Diseussion on Employee Representation Some Facts and Factors Which Measure Its Success—Examples Taken from Periods of Strife—-°50-50” Essential BY ARTHUR H. YOUNG* employee representation it probably will be made to appear that the starting point of this develop- ment in the United States, as far as the time element is concerned, was about the year 1915. This genesis, this starting point, of employee representation seems to me to have been brought about and established by the coincident realization on the employer side of the barrier of two fundamental ideas. The first of these has been clearly stated by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in the following words: S ‘cmp day when somebody writes a real history of Most of the misunderstanding between men is due to a lack of knowledge of each other When men get together and talk over their differences candidly, much of the ground for dispute vanishes. In the days when industry was on a small scale, the employer came into direct contact with his em- ployees, and the personal sympathy and understand- ing which grew out of that contact made the rough places smooth. However, the use of steam and electricity, re- sulting in the development of large-scale industry with its attendant economies and benefits, has of necessity erected barriers to personal contact be- tween employers and men, thus making it more difficult for them to understand each other. In spite of the modern development of big business, human nature has remained the same, with all its cravings, and all its tendencies toward sympathy when it has knowledge and toward prejudice when it does not understand. The fact is that the growth of the organization of industry has proceeded faster than the adjustment of the interrelations of men engaged in industry The second of these fundamental ideas could hardly be stated in better terms than those which were thoughtfully agreed upon and formally published by *Industrial Relations Counsel to Curtis, Fosdick & Belknap, New York. This is an abstract of an address at the seventh annual industrial conference on Human Relations n Industry, under the auspices of the Y. M. ©. A. at Silver Bay, Lake George, N. ¥ the authorized representatives of the great body of employing power and employing sentiment in America, to wit: The human element in industry.is the factor of greatest importance Capital cannot exist without labor and labor without capital is helpless. The development of each is dependent upon the co- operation of the other. Confidence and good will are the foundation of every successful enterprise, and these can be created only by securing a point of contact between employer and employee. They must seek to understand each other’s problems, re- spect each other's opinions, and maintain that unity of purpose and effort upon which the very existence of the community which they constitute and the whole future of democratic civilization depend. Reducing and refining each of these two statements to its essentials and then putting them together, we can easily see a resultant situation out of which an im- portant development was bound to come. That moment in which any considerable empleyer of labor came clearly and frankly to the conclusion that “the growth of the organization of industry has proceeded faster than the adjustment of the interrelations of men en- gaged in industry” and to a realization of the compli- mentary truth that “the human element in industry is the factor of greatest importance,” marked the con- ception if not the birth of this development that we call Employee Representation. After that it was inevitable that industry should begin to find a way and a means of orderly progress to such a peace and happiness as industry had never known. In fine, the coming of employee representation was the unquestionably logical and apparently effective answer to the need and the demand for an interrelation- ship that would keep pace with the growth of industry, and for a means and a medium of contact and coopera- tion between industrial management and industry’s most important factor—the human element. While 1915 marked the first practical experiment PRATER Np yn nt mvp ee a Us re hy N+! en as er ta SIN -rrah g Ale S 2 Smt . Pe Sg RBIS OO LONE _— ap Beg Np eer rete IR 2 Cee ae pt Sam mali te eae et, arene! E-eameeet —Mw Leeli * iene tre oe ee a 5 Sd pe oh oO a ee nee re I st ce ig 690 with the employee representation idea, it was several years later before this new development began to re- ceive anything like general public attention. When the future historian of this movement undertakes his task I rather think he will settle upon 1919 as the beginning of the employee representation period. Before then, and as early as 1915, it is true, the subject had been dealt with from a theoretical standpoint by some of our advanced thinkers on economic and industrial ques- tions; it is also true that a number of courageous em- ployers with progressive ideas and tendencies had ex- perimented with it in one form or another, and had even undertaken practical demonstrations of the idea in their own establishments. But you will recall that five years ago there were not more than a dozen factories or other industrial oper- ations working under any kind of employee represen- tation. Even the most fortunate of these pioneers had not then achieved any conspicuous success—the new idea was very largel'y in the laboratory stage. All of you can recall the industrial relations picture of 1919—chiefly a picture of industrial warfare; not merely one darned strike after another, but one coinci- dent with another. That year brought us not only hun- dreds of localized strikes, disturbing the peace of prac- tically every important industrial center, but also two of the worst and greatest general strikes in our indus- trial history—the steel strike and the coal strike in the latter part of 1919. Need for Cooperation Made Manifest Surely that distressful year, above all other years of our experience, brought sharply and strongly home to use the need for something new in our industrial relations—something that would build a ladder over the old, strong, high barrier between capital and labor or drive a tunnel through its foundations. Then, as never before, men on both sides of the barrier felt a pressing need for some plan or some system that would function for the gigantic organization of modern in- dustry, as the old-time personal contacts had functioned for the old-time industry of little shops and small-scale production. In 1919 there were, as I have said, not more than a dozen employee representation plans in operation. Today more than a thousand companies or firms, big and little, are working and living according to this principle in one form or another. I shall not attempt to state that progress in terms of employees affected, but it is safe to say that where the employees working under this system were numbered then by thousands, they are numbered now by tens or even hundreds of thousands. Scanty as they may be, these figures tell a story of marvelous progress. It is all the more marvelous when you reflect that it has been accomplished without propaganda, without organized effort of any kind, sim- ply by the force of example and out of the desire as well as the need for a betterment of the industrial re- lation. In other words, the development of employee representation has been as unforced, as natural and as spontaneous as its genesis. Experience of the Harvester Company . Employee representation was put in effect in 17 of the International Harvester Co. manufacturing estab- lishments, wherein the majority of employees voted affirmatively to come under the plan, on March 12, 1919. The employees at three of the plants (all located in the middle west side of Chicago) rejected the plan. Two of these three plants almost immediately reballoted, at the employees’ request, and came under the operation of the plan by a tremendous majority vote. The third plant delayed its acceptance of the plan for about two years, and when finally a reballot was had at the re- quest of the employees themselves, its acceptance oc- curred by the tremendous ratio of ten to one in favor of the plan. In July, 1919, there occurred a walkout of employees in the one Chicago plant then not within the operation of the plan, a walkout wholly unexpected except that instances of that kind were then very much the order of the day in the Chicago district. At this period we THE IRON AGE September 18, 1924 were in the midst of the great packers’ strike, the Corn Products and Crane employees were at warfare with their employers, and there was a further seething tor- rent of racial strife, eventually resulting in placing portions of the city under martial law. The walkout was directed principally by leadership entirely alien to American ideals and was confined almost wholly to for- eign-born employees. It was preceded by no demands or opportunity for the consideration of grievances; in fact, it was not until 13 days after the initial walkout that any committee of the strikers made any effort to communicate with company officials. A concerted effort was made to en- list the employees of the company’s neighboring plants in the walkout and it was this crisis which the works council plan was so quickly called upon to meet. Action of the Works Council As soon as the news of the disturbance at the one plant reached the officers of the company the works councils of the other Chicago plants were called into session and all of the information at hand was made available to them. The councils were then asked to recess in order that the representatives might discuss the matter thoroughly with their constituent em- ployees, and to meet again later in the day for discus- sion of whatever grievances might be found to exist and to deal with the situation at the struck plant as it might affect the operation of their works. In the meantime, strenuous efforts were being made to picket the plants and pull out the employees, not so much by the striking employees of the Harvester plant as by the hoodlum element which quickly attached itself to a disturbance of that kind in Chicago at that time. It quickly became apparent, by direct statement of the employee representatives, that no major grievances existed between the company and its men and that the rank and file of employees were determined to continue in their regular occupation, under the conditions wholly acceptable to them, insisting upon the preservation of this natural right of American citizenship. It also quickly became apparent that to pursue this course would mean something little short of civil war, as the hoodlum element was determined that the plants should cease operation. The police force was concentrated in another portion of the city because of race riots occur- ring there and the forces of law and order were for the moment unavailable. Safety of Personnel Demanded Closure Then followed a debate as to whether the plants should be shut down as a matter of personal and public safety or should continue to operate, with all the horror of strife thereby entailed. Gradually cooler counsel prevailed and we ultimately had the spectable of the employees and management of several of the plants ot a great industry, located in the second city of the na- tion, agreeing that it was not then possible for work- men to continue in the orderly discharge of their wholly acceptable duties, because of the prevalence of disorder and anarchy. It was mutually agreed that the wise thing to do would be to shut down the plants for an_ indefinite period, the employees, however, exacting from the man- agement the pledge that the plants would be reopened at such time as the works council might decide. The agreement to shut down the plants did not come on the first day of the walkout. One of the plants, in particu- lar, persisted in its determination to continue opera- tion, until on the third day the disorder had reached such heights, and so many of the workmen were as- saulted on their way to work, that it was clearly nec- essary to follow the course if bloodshed were to be avoided. In the Steel Strike of 1919 Only a few months later occurred the great steel strike of 1919. The International Harvester Co. owns and operates the Wisconsin Steel Co., which is located in the very center of the Calumet steel district. On the morning of the first day of the strike more than 75 per cent of the employees of that plant were at their posts, whereas all of the neighboring plants were vir- September 18, 1924 tually shut down. Again it quickly became apparent, with tens of thousands of striking steel workers surg- ing the streets surrounding the plant, that continued operation would bring a strife the ultimate consequences of which must surely leave traces of horror in days to come, and again we had the spectacle of the repre- sentatives of the employees meeting with the manage- ment and deciding that, as a measure of personal and public safety, it was necessary that the great plant shut down. Its closing was accomplished with the same care and precision with which one would go about the clos- ing of his home preparatory to a vacation. The iron was run out of the blast furnaces and they were banked; all of the hot metal was cast into ingots; all of the ingots were rolled into blooms; the blooms into billets; in short, all of the hot stock was rolled into finished product before the men deserted their posts. In striking contrast to the rest of the district, not a single police officer was asked or permitted on the premises, nor were any persOns sworn in as peace officers. Plant Closed and Opened Again by the Men The plant was closed for approximately ten days, and during this time it was picketed by representatives of the strikers from other mills on the one side, and on the other were groups of employees of the Wisconsin Steel Co., determined that no destruction of the prop- erty in which they were so much interested should take place. The discussions between the two groups of pickets were of tremendous interest. Everywhere the “little gray booklet” outlining the council plan was in evidence and the Wisconsin Steel employees were argu- ing with striking pickets as to the merits and efficiency of the plan. During this interval the works council met daily. As the men finally determined that they must insist URGES SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE Ray M. Hudson Addresses Ohio State Foundrymen at Cleveland CLEVELAND, Sept. 16.—Simplified practice as an avenue of profits was urged before the Ohio State Foundrymen’s meeting here by Ray M. Hudson, chief of the Division of Simplified Practice, Department of Com- merce. “Looking at simplification from your angle as pur- chasers of millions of dollars worth of supplies, ma- chinery and equipment each year,” said Mr. Hudson, “a concerted effort on your part to simplify your purchases will unquestionably save money for you. Many of the opportunities for simplification which were reported to Secretary Hoover through the American Society of Me- chanical Engineers and the American Engineering Standards Committee cover items that originate in some foundry or are used in foundries. Think of how many varieties there are of each item of supply and equipment, and what it would mean to you if the pur- chasers of these items of supply and equipment would cooperate with you in their further simplification.” Building on Solid Foundations While standardization is a slow process, often tak- ing years before the development is complete, Mr. Hud- son explained, simplification is immediately applicable in many lines. When simplification is asked by any industry through the division, it was stated, the first step is to get the facts as to the variety of production and the demand for the various items, for it has been generally shown that in the average case 90 per cent of the demand comes from 10 per cent of the variety of products made. The other 10 per cent of demand was declared to cause the extra expense and trouble. Then, with manufacturer, distributer and consumer brought together, they are shown what has been found and they are asked to act. In the first 10 industries, it was stated, the odd and superfluous sizes eliminated repre- sented an average of 86 per cent, yet those industries THE IRON AGE 691 upon their rights as American citizens in taking up jobs of their own liking with employers of their own choosing, they sent a notice to all of the employees of the company that the plant would reopen on the follow- ing Monday morning. It is a fine tribute to the char- acter of that body of men to be able to state that more than 90 per cent of the former employees obeyed that call on the date specified, and again, the resumption of business in that great steel plant was just as orderly a process as could be conducted under any circum- stances. I wish to add that the tons-per-man produc- tion in the menth immediately following its reopening was the highest in the then history of the plant. “Grievances” Not a Determinant These incidents I quote to show the operation of the plan of employee representation in times of strife and warfare, the abnormal conditions under which it was forced to operate. Against the occasional criticism of single incidents in individual employee representation plans, I would offer the classical comment of the executive of a great transportation system to the shallow survey by a pos- sibly well-meaning, but certainly uncomprehending, critic. This executive said: A relationship in which grievances are an im- portant factor is not the kind of relationship which the plan contemplates or which exists on our rail- road. * * * Our view and the underlying foun- dation of our plan is that the natural relationship is one of harmony and accord and our plan is conceived and carried out on the threefold basis of mutual faith, facts jointly established, and fair play. To predicate any conclusions on “grievences,” asa factor * * ® is like judging the health of a city by the kinds of sickness a relatively small number of its people suffer, and by their attitude toward the city’s facilities for curing them. are doing more business at lower costs than ever today and their workmen are freed from the worry of sea- sonal operation. Frequent Pattern Changes “As manufacturers,” continued Mr. Hudson, “you foundrymen know only too well the grief that comes with the frequent pattern changes which your cus- tomers inflict upon you. Perhaps you feel that to sug- gest simplification to them is more their problem than yours, but when you are bidding for work the question of whether you get the job may be decided by your ability to show the prospective customer how by sim- plification you can help him get out a better product at lower cost. Oftentimes, simplification of parts would permit you to make them up for stock in quiet periods against the customer’s future needs.” Mention was made by Mr. Hudson of the fact that one large railroad system through simplification cut its stocks of supplies from 140,000 to 78,000 items, and he told how purchasing agents of some 40 large roads ap- plied the same principle in cutting down inventories 37.5 per cent and released $180,000,000 of hitherto “frozen” investment. War Practices Abandoned Mr. Hudson paid a high compliment to the work dur- ing the war of the nation’s foundry industry, but warned that some individual companies are getting away from the war-time practices. He also praised the work of the foundrymen in their efforts to establish a code of uni- form trade practices. He urged the appointment of a committee to review the field with respect to its pos- sibilities for reducing present wastes, pledging the co- operation of the Division of Simplified Practice if such action were taken. In concluding he said: “Simplification is a profit- making policy. It reduces stocks, production costs, sell- ing expenses, investment, seasonal employment and mis- understandings. It increases turnover, promptness of delivery, quality of product, aids in promoting foreign commerce and enlarges profits.” - oe ES TAL RIIIES Ya it het ine ipnlin mind nena EB ayy 2 0 stented wy 9 ee een ae) to oe Sen ei a Conca > te ee ee Se a ee ee ee eee eee ee ee ee ee es —— ee a re ay seaieieeiiniinetiieeene sienna eee 692 FANS FOR ORE SINTERING * Severe Service Conditions and Points of Design to Meet Them There are two general classes of sintering machines for reclaiming ore dust: the rotary kiln or retort type and the stoker type. The former, as the name implies, consists of rotating retort in which the material is placed. Producer gas at high pressure melts and fuses the dust into clinker form. No mechanical draft equip- ment is required. With the stoker type installation, however, a heavy, high pressure steel plate exhauster is required which acts as an induced draft fan. The work required of an exhauster in this connection is probably more severe than that required of a cen- trifugal fan in any other one class of work. This follows because of the high temperature and high pres sure under which the sintering fan must operate, both calling for a fan of the heaviest type construction. The dust to be sintered is fed by means of chain grate stokers over the sintering pans which are fired by means of a set of gas flames placed over the grate. The air connections are made below the grate, thereby giving a down draft. As it is necessary to maintain a high vacuum in the pan below the grates and a comparatively high velocity in the ducts, the air carries a large volume of small cinders and other gritty material which ordi- narily would wear out the exhauster in a short time. This is taken care of at times by the use of a cen- trifugal dust collector on the suction side of the fan which removes most of this heavy material. The iron dust and small cinders have an abrasive effect similar to emery dust, making it necessary to line the air ducts with fire-brick. Sometimes the dust collectors are provided with a false lining, which likewise is covered with fire brick to eliminate abrasive effect. Sintering fan design and construction are not re- garded generally as a standardized process. A cursory examination, however, of the specifications of a group of these units will disclose several important points of similarity in the contract requirements. Most con- spicuous of these are the demands for heavy housing and center plate construction—the latter generally being of 44-in. metal—water cooled bearings, high rota- tive speed and high pressures, and for rivets in the housing and blades that are round headed and hot driven. *From a monogranh by Co Buffalo, N. Y. Arthur lL. Greene Buffalo Forge THE IRON AGE September 18, 1924 The first of these requirements—that for heavy housing and center plate construction—is based on the size of the fan unit and the varied temperatures to which it is subjected. The housing for this type fan unit, incidentally, is seldom made from cast material. The need for water cooled bearings with a sintering unit is evident. No attempt is made as a rule to cool the shafts themselves. The high tip speed required and the high pressure under which the fans operate are more easily under- stood after reading the following table, which shows the approximate pressures necessary for different thick- nesses of bed material: Mad 26: -tm, CBR oic 6 ic cd wide 23 in. suction or =O, ae Ge é'c-s-0 cap0.6 ¥ 16 in. suction ae Ne eee 12 in. suction Because of the powder-like form of the ore being treated in the sintering process, the suction required to Buffalo Sintering Fan Wheel Is of Center Plate Type. The casing, which provides for double inlet, is rein- 0 forced with angle bars create a draft through this closely packed material is necessarily great. This in turn requires a compara- tively high tip speed of the wheel to maintain the proper volume of air. The advantage accruing from hot riveting the fan housing and blades is evident in view of the thickness of metal used and the great desirability of reducing internal stresses to the minimum. In addition a smooth and, as far as possible, frictionless ‘surface should be maintained with these units, as small cinders, clinker, grit and similar materials passing through the fan at high speed cause wear. For this reason all projecting surfaces are avoided or at least reduced to a minimum. One type of sintering fan, shown in the accompany- ing illustration and manufactured by the Buffalo Forge Co., has a removable scroll section to permit the wheel to be taken out. This section is removed by loosening the bolts holding the companion angles, and is placed generally on the opposite side from the outlet. To obtain maximum rigidity of the fan wheel, the blades are riveted to each side of a heavy center plate. This center plate construction is of importance, as well, in lessening the internal stresses within the wheel. The cone shape of the side plates also constitutes a minor reinforcing feature. The more important purpose of sloping the flange, however, is to obtain a narrower width at the periphery of the blade than at the base and by so doing to obtain a more equal distribution of air as it leaves the fan. In place of the usual angle supports for the fan, channel supports are used. Im- portant from the standpoint of preventing vibration is the running balance given all fans of this type. This is doubly important in view of the high operating speed. Non-Ferrous Metallurgy in America Recent Developments Discussed Before British Metallurgists by an American—Nickel Alloys, Bronzes and Long-Life Molds (Special Correspondence) LONDON, ENGLAND, Sept. 11.—The third annual autumn lecture, held under the auspices of the Insti- tute of Metals, was notable for the fact that the lec- turer was an American, William M. Corse, of the National Research Council, Washington. The honor which has thus fallen to his lot is a well-merited one, for Mr. Corse is an original member of the institute and honorary corresponding member to the council for the United States of America. The British Insti- tute of Metals has about 150 members resident in the United States and it was from these men, as well as from the membership of the Institute of Metals divi- sion of the American Institute of Mining and Metal- lurgical Engineers that Mr. Corse brought warm felici- tations. Considerable interest was aroused among the members of the institute when it was known that Mr. Corse would deliver the autumn lecture this year, and his address was an important feature of the autumn meeting which opened in London on Sept. 8. Early History of Nickel Mr. Corse limited his address to a description of the more recent important developments in the United States with particular reference to such subjects as nickel, aluminum, bronze and long-life molds. He traced the origin of the recognition of the value of nickel as a commercial metal to the paper by James Riley, of Glasgow, read before the Iron and Steel Insti- tute in 1889. The steps leading to the publication of this paper are interesting as showing the development of the metal. Mr. Ritchie, principal owner of the copper-nttkel mines in Canada, came in contact in Washington in 1876 with an English inventor, who had an itea of constructing a refrigerating ship to move around the ports in the Gulf of Mexico, take on yellow fever patients and freeze the germs out of them. This inventor needed an alloy to hold ammonia gas and, after looking over the meteorites in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, decided to try iron-nickel alloys. These proved to be very successful. Recalling these earhy experiences, Mr. Ritchie came to Great Britain and succeeded in interesting the British steel companies in making some studies of the possibilities of using nickel in steel, which culminated in Riley’s paper in 1889, mentioned above. About this same time tests on armor plate between nickel steel and the old compound plate showed conclusively the superiority of the former. These tests established a market for nickel in steel, which stimulated the active commercial development of the metal. The methods of smelting and refining at the three plants treating ores from the Sudbury nickel field were described by Mr. Corse. In general, the treatment at the smelters, as distinguished from the refineries at the different plants, is identical in principle. The ore is smelted to a low grade matte, containing about 25 per cent nickel and copper, which is then blown in basic converters for the removal of iron, producing a so-called “converter” or “Bessemer matte,” which is shipped for subsequent treatment to the refineries. The converter matte usually contains between 78 and 82 per cent copper-nickel and less than 0.59 per cent iron. The balance is almost entirely sulphur. The cobalt is reported as nickel and usually will not exceed 0.40 per cent. Mr. Corse described fully the three processes for recovering the metal from the converter or Bessemer matte, shipped to the refineries from the smelter—the Orford process, the Mond process and the more recent 693 Hybinette process—all of them involving the separa~ tion of copper and nickel. An interesting phenomenon in the metallurgy of the Orford process is the fact that gold and silver follow the copper, and are recovered in the electrolytic refining of blister, while the platinum group of metals follow the nickel. Typical analysis of the various metallic products are as follows: Nickel- Cobalt, Copper, Iron, Sulphur, Carbon, "er Per Per "er Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent dl ae 99.00 0.20 0.50 0.04 0.08 “X” nickel shot.... 99.10 0.15 0.45 0.025 0.15 “A” nickel shot.... 98.60 0.20 0.45 0.030 0.50 Grain nickel....... 97.00 0.20 0.50 0.04 nos Electrolytic nickel... 99.80 0.02 0.15 0.02 In the Orford process the heat loss through the alternate heating and cooling of the product is a con- siderable factor in the cost of the finished metal. This is in marked contrast to copper metallurgy where prac- tically all of the refining is done without cooling be- tween steps and helps to explain in so measure the difference in cost between the two eal The Mond product averages 99.50 ger cent nickel and has a characteristic onion-like structure, due to method of production. The residue from the volatilizer, consisting of copper and nickel, is melted down with sulphur to a copper-nickel matte and reverts to the initial step in the process, i.e., similar to Bessemer matte. Nickel from the Hybinette process is produced pri- marily in the form of electrolytic cathodes about 20 x 30 in. Electrolytic copper is the by-product. As in the Orford process, a number of steps are necessary before the final production of the metal both in the Mond and Hybinette processes. During the past 15 years the world’s production oi refined nickel has probably averaged 40,000,000 to 80,000,000 lb. per year, and the approximate distribution of this tonnage, prior to the signing of the naval dis- armament treaty, was: For nickel steel ordnance, 60 per cent; nickel-silver and copper-nickel alloys, 25 per cent; nickel plating (anodes and salts) 5 per cent; mal- leable nickel, 5 per cent; miscellaneous, 5 per cent. Developments in Monel Metal Monel metal, cont