The Iron Age 1923-02-08: Vol 111 Iss 6

T nts Lb > Al) 00 00 i. : 6.00 9,50 7.00 8.75 6.00 4.50 4.50 gardless of the VOL. I11, No. 6 Heat Treatment of Steel Castings Methods of Improving Physical Properties and the Bearing on Specifications—Effect on Impact Values of Electric and Open-Hearth Steel BY F. C. LANGENBERG” treatment of steel castings is a subject has received serious consideration in some for several years. The beneficial effect innealing treatment upon the properties ting is no longer questioned, but the ad- quenching such material in a_ suitable lowed by the | 0 drawing oper- '! ee iniversally ac- itely, the phys- tained from a CAST STEEL SLUG coupons or which they not repre- ngth of the tructural unit. changes of n the easting —— ee ee he casting = ("> or-74 i other irreg- LP en LL us internal CCPAIRPyY | "Pres A See eat aed Sh Se oe ed iy to be de- ng solidifica- frequent- —— ee ee ee SS ee ee | hecks, which irent by sur ec. catia reer ees The metal insta cane ceell: Cake nny iw ate e porous and —— — lities where has not occured. Indeed, many castings | that it is impossible for foundrymen to vithout the presence of such interior ling treatment, when applied to plain ngs, has in general very little effect nit and tensile strength, but does pro- rease in ductility, which results in a sistance to impact stresses. Many section will, in reality, have their elas- le strength actually reduced by the on. Furthermore, a simple annealing to produce a uniform elastic limit and throughout the entire section of the ngs it more nearly to the condition as- esigner in his calculations. Further- Kness of section does not have such a boratories, Watertown Arsenal, Water- 9¢ « decided influence during a slow cooling operation, the test specimens taken to represent any given casting will more nearly represent the properties of the mate- rial in the casting itself than would be the case if the tests were taken in the unannealed condition or after a more rapid cooling operation. Realizing that it is per- fectly possible to take a given section of cast steel and by a simple heat treat- ' ment operation, such as a quench and draw, material- ly increase the elastic limit and tensile strength, and perhaps also the elongation | and contraction of area, it naturally follows that at- tempts would be made to treat steel castings in the same manner. The designer might be informed that it is possible to increase the elastic limit from 35,000 to 50,000 lb. per sq. in., and as a result he would attempt to make savings in weight by reduction of the thick- ness of the casting, specify- ing the increased physical properties necessary for his new design. In many cases, the design of the casting will be such that it would be a practical impossibility to give a satisfactory quench without serious cracking or warping. Even though it was possible satisfactorily to quench the casting, the serious danger is still present of the casting being structurally weak at the corners or in other points of change of section. The likelihood of the test coupons actually representing the properties of the casting is more remote in the case of a quench and draw than in the case of a simple anneal. To summarize the situation relative to the heat treatment of castings for the purpose of obtaining addi- tional structural strength, or a casting of less weight with the same strength, it is believed that a study must be made of each individual casting, and it is considered dangerous and a very unwise practice to submit to the designer a set of physical properties which can only be obtained by a heat treatment operation. After a study has been made of any particular casting, it is then pos- Location of the Physical and Charpy Test Pieces Used in the Investigation I7 es oo ce : 7 livered by a hammer swung as a pendulum. The pen- 398 THE IRON AGE February 8, sible after certain experimentation to furnish informa- tion on which the designer can rely. Pa There are many castings in which the question of wear is very important while the question of structural strength is not of as great importance. Undoubtedly the wearing properties can be materially increased by a suitable heat treatment operation, and this Arsenal has successfully produced many thousand track shoes and grousers which have been subjected to a quenching and drawing operation. These castings are of rela- tively thin section, approximately %4 in., and experience 4 indicates that their life is materially increased by suit- ; { & t 4 Sh S| < 4 SK Oo i ~m ~~. ~~ Oi , , oy < yi es > A / hat F h4 } t * Z ‘ : i} is, tS, re yee ~ es! c L, & ae | ~ BI & ™ oe els ‘i ° Details of the Test Specimens Used for the Charpy Results and Plan of the Method of Testing ° Radius ot -~ , —- . i utter 0076 1 k-- 0039 | | 3 | Ww | Wf K<-/ O825- >> JO8?2S - > le. es! Pe } lade [ILL | i . nf £./O9 - ~ QO. 9 4 able heat treatment. It is not believed that a study , of the ordinary tensile properties is sufficient to deter- -) ° . § mine the effect of various heat treatments upon cast steel of different compositions, and it is believed that P| the results of the impact test are of considerable assist- ance in predicting the service behavior of a given cast- ing after different heat treatments. A number of experiments has been carried out in the metallurgical laboratories at Watertown Arsenal in connection with foundry operations at this plant, and it is thought that a brief presentation of some of the results will be of interest. The chief application of the dynamic type of physical test has generally been to forged steels and other material, and although the methods of impact testing are now generally under- stood, it is thought that a brief description of the method and type of machine employed in these experi- ments may be of interest. bh, The machine used in the following tests is a Charpy et pendulum machine, in which the blow or impact is de- dulum is raised to a known angle and allowed :) fg) acquiring an amount of energy in its downwar under the action of gravity which is at a max the moment when the center of gravity of the pendy is at the lower vertical, at which moment the force of gravity is perpendicular to the direction of m f the hammer, and at this same moment impact the test specimen takes place. The energy in the nmer at the moment of impact is readily calculated the weight of the pendulum, the distance of i: . of gravity from the axis of suspension and the height of fall. After impact and rupture of the test specime; the hammer continues to swing. Neglecting and air resistance (corrections for which are made jy actual testing) the pendulum would swing to the sam angle on the one side of the vertical as the angle from which it started on the other side of the vertical, if test specimen were present. Impact and rupture of the test specimen certain amount of the kinetic energy of the when it is at its lowest vertical position, and its continued swing it will have only the excé rgy seen eneseannt revere enennnnecnnunernenesnanereienscsenensanenennnenennnseneysueevasenanancnicrtesty ‘ - 1— Data and Results on Low Carbon Electric Cast Steel Treatments Physical Props Table per CC n. Strength, Lb. per in Elongation per cent Ultimate sq Casting Quench Point, Red Yield Lb s« Temp deg Time ‘ast 20,000 43,000 26.0 w te o o 17,500 43,500 B5976 AV. 8.12 ~ 500 46,000 ro B5976 zhr. F.C 2 B5976 4hr. F.C, 3 20,000 31.0 Av ov B5976 4hr. F.C. 4 27,000 46,000 36 2 925 2 hr. 2 hr. oe 5 30,000 47,000 36.0 54. f or te B5976 9: hr. Water ¢ 29.000 48.000 41.5 71.4 6.80 B hr. F.C. ae a Lt Av. 68 mn ato oon nore 995 600 B5976 hr. Water 7 85.0 64.7 62.75 5 hr. F.C. 32,500 53,500 mts nveneRD ONE ReoReneneRneREASanennanEEH DNL THN NT HNKt ttt! t seinen eanannane sir yveneoneeneen after deducting the energy absorbed in rupture specimen from the maximum energy. This & energy is easily deduced by noting the ang! the pendulum swings after impact, and thus the enere absorbed at impact is obtainable. In the tests, the results of which are given aver the Charpy machine had a hammer weighing 4! nas lb. and delivering a blow of about 217 foot poun¢ energy. The test specimens are small rectangular not” bars of the dimensions as shown in one lustrati¢ The specimen when placed in the machine rests 00°" supports as a beam, and is struck by the hammet , ; point directly opposite the notch, the arrangemen" the test specimen in the machine (or on th: it is called) is indicated in another illustration. — The notch is made in order to prevent © forms" of the material and concentrate stress ‘ “anvil at § "er at @ § mat certall February 8, 1923 that actual rupture without deformation may ed. material used in the tests was steel made in a :i¢c lined Heroult electric furnace. Slugs were , production heats, and four impact test speci- 1 one tensile test specimen were cut from each .e dimensions of the slugs, and the location of specimens are shown in an illustration. The :tments were carried out in the metallurgical y, heating being done in Hoskins electric fur- ntrolled by base metal pyrometers recording on Northrup recorders. The slugs were heat fore the test specimens were machined. nalysis of the two heats tested was as follows: Manga- Phos- Carbon, nese, phorus, Sulphur, Silicon, Per Cent Per Cent PerCent PerCent Per Cent 0.11 0.36 0.015 0.020 0.180 0.49 0.60 0.014 0.014 0.305 nsile properties and the impact test results in Tables 1 and 2. rst treatment was a simple anneal at 825 deg. leg. Fahr.) for 2 hr. The physical properties = we suvteenenenes TITY ss nenvenenrnnsePdvsnnoneacies seetrnesnecesnseeT Cr TTT Data and Results on High Carbon Basic Electric Cast Steel ents Physical Properti« Charpy l 1 is Cast 13 45,500 80,000 7.5 5.8 3.09 ‘ . i ahr F.C 12 46.000 81.000 15.5 20.0 AV. ) 0.88 hr. F.C. 2 43.500 79,500 15.0 20.5 11.41 10.8; Av. 10.91 10.06 9.9 f{hr. F.C. 3 44,500 81,000 15.0 20.5 10.30 11.24 Av. 10.39 11.71 11.54 fhr. F.C, 4 44,500 79.000 14.0 17.0 11.68 11.52 Av. 11.61 13.78 13.29 <hr. Air § 49,000 85,000 17.0 20.5 12.25 hr. F.C 14.46 Av. 13.42 17.68 — oe 15.80 hr. Water ¢ 59000 82.500 21.0 34.8 16.92 hr. F.C 17.26 Av. 16.9 14.68 hr. Water 15.2 . © 7 56.500 94,500 5.0 30 14.23 chr. F.C, ' 14.2¢ Av. 14.61 TOUTHUNEDUNT EN DUNE NDNENDOEDONEODODOEPE DO ODORONEED OSE DUREFTD los8noenOK HON DORENSHOOOERE DE rHeeCE irbon heat were practically unaffected by temperature anneal, whereas the elongation tion of the high carbon heat were very ma- reased, the yield point and ultimate strength, maining practically the same. The resis pact on the high carbon heat was increased ple anneal at 825 deg. C. approximately the value obtained in the cast condition. t treatment was a simple anneal at a higher namely 925 deg. C. (1697 deg. Fahr.). it a higher temperature increased the im- the low carbon steel over 700 per cent, gher carbon heat did not improve the im- ver those obtained on the lower tempera- ‘neal. It will also be noted that the higher y THE IRON AGE 399 anneal on the high carbon heat reduced slightly the elastic limit and tensile strength. The next operation was to repeat the two anneals, increasing the period of soaking from two to four hours. The results obtained upon the higher carbon heat were very little affected by this increased period of time at the annealing temperature, whereas on the low carbon heat the longer period at 825 deg. C. (1517 deg. Fahr.) did result in a decided increase in the im- pact properties over those obtained by an anneal for two hours at the same temperature. The explanation of this, however, is quite simple. During the 2-hr. anneal at 825 deg. C. the material did not pass through the critical range, whereas during the 4-hr. anneal at 825 deg. the material had passed through the range at some stage during the soaking period. The next treatment applied to both heats was an air chill from 925 deg. C. (1697 deg. Fahr.) followed by a draw at 500 deg. C. (932 deg. Fahr.). The results on the high carbon heat are of particular interest. The yield point and ultimate strength have been increased, as have also the results of the impact test. The next two treatments applied consisted of water quenching from 925 deg. C. (1697 deg. Fahr.), followed by a drawing operation at 675 deg. C. (1247 deg. Fahr.) and 600 deg. C. (1112 deg. Fahr.) respectively. Re- ferring first to the tests resulting from the coupons drawn at 675 deg. C., it is to be observed that associated with the increase of yield point and ultimate strength is quite a material increase in the results of the impact test. On the material drawn at 600 deg. C. the yield point and ultimate strength are higher than obtained from the draw at 675 deg., which is, of course, as would be expected. It should be further noted that the im- pact values, although exceptionally good, are not as high as those obtained when the draw was carried out at the higher temperature. Before leaving the discussion of these results, it is again desired to point out some of the dangers result- ing from a direct application of results such as pre- sented in the accompanying tables. Assume that heat C6903 was made to meet the following requirements: Contraction Yield Point, Tensile Strength, Elongation, of Area, Lb. per Sq. In Lb. per Sq. In. Per Cent Per Cent 36,000 80.000 14 20 With slight tolerances any of the tensile tests re- ported would meet the specification enumerated above. If in the design of some casting the question of weight is becoming very troublesome, the designer upon an examination of the table might conclude that he could write a specification calling for: Contraction Elastic Limit, Tensile Strength, Elongation, of Area, Lb. per Sq. In Lb. per Sq. In. Per Cent Per Cent 50,000 85,000 14 25 basing his deductions upon the results obtained by quenching the material from 925 deg. C. (1697 deg. Fahr.) in water and subsequently drawing at 600 deg. C. (1112 deg. Fahr.). If the casting was of simple section and comparatively uniform throughout, his ex- pectations might be fully realized in practice, but the attempt to apply such a specification to any general line of miscellaneous castings would lead to very dan- gerous consequences, and ultimately result in many disappointing failures. A similar set of experiments, although less detailed, was conducted on an acid open-hearth heat of the fol- lowing composition: Carbon Manganes¢ Silicor Sulphur, Phosphorus, Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 0.30 0.62 0.18 0.038 0.038 The three treatments applied were as follows: Treatment A: Heated to 900 deg. C. (1652 deg. Fahr.), soaked two hours at this temperature and water quenched, Lee ee emmy an ~~ Fe MAIO AAD Sc sc RBIS SRN Mia G NNN et AR ain de TN ESAT 86 SID RM ARI Mage 4 ete Alerts sta? Sern oa 400 followed by ‘ 7 aM ; drawing two hours at 650 deg. C. (1202 deg Fahr.) and furnace cooled. Treatment B: Heated to soaked two hours at this temperature and furnace cooled. . Treatment C: Heated to 950 deg. C. (1742 deg. Fahr.), } iy f soaked two hours at this temperature and cooled in air, fol- , : lowed by drawing two hours at 500 deg. C. (932 deg. Fahr.) Wa ba ee ; “ > and furnace cooled. The results of these From an inspection of the mean results of the tests it is evident that water quenching has raised the elastic limit approximately 10,000 lb. per sq. in. and the ten- sile strength 8000 lb. per sq. in. over that obtained by a simple furnace anneal. Furthermore, this has been accomplished with but little sacrifice of ductility. The ; The shock strength, as measured by the Charpy im- to 14.25 900 deg. C. (1652 deg. Fahr.), tests are shown in Table 3. ae ae TEs 2 RG oma vqeneegae 99 pact resistance, has been increased from 11.32 ft.-lb. The air-chilled specimens show an increase in both elastic limit and tensile strength of approximately 3000 over that obtained by a simple furnace a lb. per in. Sq. of Different Heat rth) Physical Prope rties of Cast Steel (Acid Hea < ; Table 3 % ; 5 ; Treatments Open er t, Marks Loans @ Average of 7 tests 14.25 000 15.0 24.0 > y 500 00 4 l 500 19.5 27.4 x9 5.000 ‘ 82.500 25.0 31.0 R0 500 19.5 24.( 20.5 Average of 163 160 Ny 19.9000 81.000 c 49.5 50.000 §2? 20.7 8 tests 11.87 156 00 &5.000 ooo ae + Average 419 500 8° 666 16.2 23.9 159 This increase is in good agreement with that i PW, anneal. at this ° »bserved in the foundry annealing Arsenal in the production of what would correspond to practice oa bas the medium of hard grades of steel castings as specified by the A. S. T. M. Conclusions In conclusion, the author emphasizes that: + First—Although prove that ars properties, including resistance to impact, of cast steel i of a given composition can be materially improved by 4? ai the quenching and drawing operation, it is not advis- able to prescribe in a general specification a set of obtained by a experiments physical physical properties which cannot be er simple annealing treatment. Second—Interior defects castings are very apt to make the quenching operation exceedingly dangerous as regards development of cracks, and irregularities of steel it being practically impossible to quench castings of certain design without the development of checks and cracks which may not always be apparent upon surface : examination. ‘wT Third—A casting which has Beier ed drawn can be very advantageously used for many pur- lite poses if the design will permit of its proper treatment. a) Tae. In ease the heat treatment of a given casting is desir- f I able in order to obtain better physical properties, a a ards study should be made of the casting in question and spe- hs cial physical requirements and specifications developed for each individual case. been quenched and THE IRON AGE x February Morse Chain Co.’s New Plant The Morse Chain Co., Ithaca, N. Y., is nov ing in its new Detroit plant on West Warren the increased automotive production in that di: the accompanying demand for the company’s having necessitated increased manufacturing The company established a branch factory three years ago at Eighth and Abbott streets, trial conditions in Ithaca did not warrant in that city. The new plant is a one-story, co: steel building with 60,000 sq. ft. of floor spa adequate room for manufacturing and offices ago, the company acquired a five-acre tract Warren Avenue on the Detroit Terminal Rai it is in a position to expand its plant as tl} for its products increases. The Morse Chain Co. specializes in the chain drives for industrial transmissions and the application of silent chains to cam and drives in automobile engines. The Detroit p! the management of F. C. Thompson will ma all sprockets and adjustments used in Mors drives and the new Morse silent chain bus tra Inland Steel Co. Earnings The Inland Steel Co. wound up 1922 wit of $127,168 shown on the income accou there was a deficit of $503 236 at the clo This showing is all the more impressive the fact that no reduction was made in paid out on dividends last year, while som $100,000 more was set aside for depreciation, in 1921. The net earnings of the company after allowing for Federal and all other tax to $2,484,028, whereas in 1921 they were (28,031 Depreciation charges amounted to $1,004,336 wa $911,993 in 1921, while the bond interest charges wei scaled down from $305,310 in 1921 to $288,510 last year, leaving a net profit of $1,141,177. T et sur plus for 1921 was $510,728. At the close « the profit and loss surplus stood at $18,332, close of 1921, it was $18,205,445. Dates of Foreign Trade Convention Changed The dates on which the tenth national f convention will meet in New Orleans hav« poned to May 2, 3, 4, 1923, according to an: of O. K. Davis, secretary of the National For Council. The convention will devote special attent European situation, the part played by imp national life, and transportation by rail Group sessions will deal with the practica export sales management, finance, credits, a! ing, with particular consideration of problems affecting the Gulf and the Pacific. Cceast Employee representation and what has plished by the Pennsylvania Railroad and panies, will be the subject of an address Rogers, industrial correspondent of the 0 before the New York chapter of the Society of Engineers, to be held in the Engineering Soc ing, New York, Feb. 12. E. S. Cowdrick, r the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co., Denver, will cussion, To determine the magnetic properties of apparatus has been designed and calib Bureau of Standards. The description of t! and the results obtained are discussed in ! issued by the bureau and obtainable at 5 application to the Government Printing ‘ ington. It is pointed out that the magnet may be ascertained of pieces as small as in diameter and % in. long. Temperatures Important BY F. J. DENK.* opera- urnace, cm which, gE.” she "20% ; = is been nf * —" 4/0 af re ero a few CBRE HY, ) poe ee No 2 le the GF _ . a 3 Ity of n still COMPOS/TIONS OF FQLLR PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL FUEL GASES ing Fuels—Pyrometric Efficiencies and Flame x rlAL for every operator of a furnace is They have succeeded in producing .e knows, not how much heat per pound or gas, using the volatile matter and the tarry vapors in ibic foot of fuel is available at the burner’ the coal for other purposes. what part of this heat will be used for the ture differs from the European in the fact that the » the time unit. This is the whole secret tarry vapors and the volatile matter are made use of the old NATURAL GAS DUO-GAS COKE OVEN GAS PRODUCER GAS 1 i fuel i di a etter, it 3226 Deg. Fahr 3400 530% 2673 neat- ‘Lower"Heat Valve and Theore swe Jomneras gases ied up Cre Stal Lil a nt time indus- al gas gas. e gas dered mdustible| Ving, as mostly m raising or THEORET/CAL AS-AIR M/XT > re ssin the in- BEFORE COMBUST/ON blast lirectly. itural well 8413 CuFt reas- 1 by b Dut, last t rease er of plants rnaces ee a4 9.318 363 iilable No 8.413 :s + es of Qa '23 4 445 3°90 47 coke HEORETICAL PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION. CUBIC FEET PER ch is . s earth j f for 2 4 | as . ses | per | | ad SAS AT 62 DEG. FAHR ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE a) sTaea . steel MEAT CONTENTS IW ONE CUBIC FOOT OF oven sub- Fig. 1. Comparison, on Four Different Bases, of Four Meta Fuel Gases—Natural Gas; Duo-Ga Coke Oven Gas: Prod WE PRODUCT OF MA TIOW AT é 6 SANA ATM tural pro- it can not be produced everywhere and The heating value of the , necessary to turn, for certain purposes, ence upon the efficiency, , which will work like coke oven gas. “pyrometric efficiency.” has been found in the so-called duo-gas, The heat available in nbination coal and water gas. The under- certain kind of fuel in a a consulting engineer, practicing in Pitts- Q V volume “uel Gas Question in Steel Industry Dependence Cannot Be Placed on B.t.u. Values in Compar- a high-grade water The American manufac- by way of turning them into fixed gases, thus adding a considerable amount of valuable combustible matter to the water gas. This means a de- cided advantage over present Euro- pean practice, as far as the gas proper is con- ‘erned The application of coke oven gas has met with some opposition, as it was believed that this gas could not do the required work. However, tests made in the United States as well as abroad have shown that, actually, 1 cu. ft. of coke oven gas can do the same work as 1 cu. ft. o natural gas, nct- withstanding the fact that the heat- ing value of the latter is more than twice that of the former. The reason for such conditions can be found in the following: It was said above that the effi- ciency of a fuel de- pends upon the amount of heat which can be made available for the work to be done. This amount, in turn, depends upon the flame tempera- ture and the latter ipon the quantity and specific heat of the waste gases. herefore, of no influ- arge influence is the a furnace and produced by a unit of time can be found by 0 of the manufacture of this gas has been dividing the available heat by the volume of the waste Was | Europe during the last 10 or 15 years. gases. If Q = total heat, and | $ of the waste gases, i May 18, 1922, and the article represents his then V — the heat entering the furnace during the kind. 401 ee “* — EM en § LEAL ET OY a 402 THE IRON AGE February 8, 19% ii.4 q <= 34. i ; , , la ie ‘ > 7 t 4 < : * aera - > © © . » - &, iz =e gr. eA Nh, 3 j ! SES ps : e “et a ; t we 4 > * * gas + 2) ‘ ?? rt, : 3 a ee hg #9 a em . ay ' ; Leu ° a P. =. > aha 2o “st ‘ ' > « f * > _ . r ; ae . ‘9 - \e . t . ” > J . : Pid ’ . > 5 * Flame Temperature and the time unit. According to the laws of heat transmission, the heat which can be made useful for operation will be: Q Q: = Vy The heat transmission by convection is: Q ex ex SE For the comparison of different fuels, the heat transmission coefficient k is constant; the same holds good for z, which represents the time for the heat trans- mission for different fuels at the same efficiency. It is @) therefore e > dm, ore X Q dm X V. y But, for the same work of all the fuels, the left side of the equation, i.e. e X Q, is constant. For this reason, the measure for the comparison of the fuels is repre- sented by the right side of the equation. This means that the criterion for the efficiency of a fuel is the volume of waste gases, multiplied by the difference between the flame temperature and the working tem- perature, or, in other words, the efficiency of a gaseous fuel depends upon its pyrometric efficiency. This result can be expressed by an equation which will permit the calculation of comparative values of different fuels. The equation reads K T:—To Vt 1 {= T, TV,’ (1) where £ represents the equivalent value of the new gas in comparison with the one used before, or the one which it shall replace, Tt represents the actual flame temperature of the new gas, T9 represents the actual flame temperature of the old £as, 280} wn A fig rc a , 701 i\ ee | » = 1h A k | ii or | \ » oh | i a 7 r ¢ c+O gs + * OA; \ \ + \ a > nt He Ly , a \ \ eee } -— ‘ + Lb \ b , ‘yy V9 \ \ \ rn t x * \ \ Oy at | \arorts y er n\ \ 4 4 4 ‘ GS i \ + V 1 \ i a “ . i . \ » 4 iF A \A es ¢ ss} < y for Curves Combustion Producer Gas temperature) T» represents the temperature in the furnace (, Vt represents the volume of waste gases per cv of the new gas under operating conditions, a Vg represents the volume of the waste gases p foot of the old gas under operating conditior The application of this formula (1) will fallacy of the old creed, that “a B.t.u. is a B will be used later for giving comparative valu the properties of the different gases in quest been described and explained in detail. Analyses and properties of the four stee! gases are given in Table I and in Fig. 1. Thi shows the same data as the table, with the « of the one row, marked “B.t.u. per cubic foot of mixture.” This row has been added to the ‘ause the values given there have often been a proof that there is not much difference bet different gases, because these heat values do Properties Table I of Industrial Gases Natural Coke Oven Gas Gas Gas Duo-Gas Methane* CH, 83.0 23.1 11.0 Ethane* C.H, 16.4 ; : Ethylene* CoH, 1.6 1.0 Benzole* C,H, 0.6 2.0 Carbon monoxide* co caied eh ecals 4.9 34.0 Carbon dioxide* COs, 1.5 3.0 Hydrogen* H 55.5 47.0 ORFBOR?: Os.scccese oe 0.8 one Nitrogwen® Ng....... 0.6 12.0 2.0 Total* 100.0 100.0 100.0 B.t.u. per cu. ft .1,018 425 426 Air required per Oe Ti vcscaneecun 0.64 4.06 3.84 Total gas-air mix- SN fe iat a 11.64 5.06 4.84 B.t.u. per cu. ft. gas- air mixture...... 87.4 84.0 88.0 Waste gases, cu. ft. per cu. ft. fuel gas 11.723 4.755 4.445 B.t.u per cu. ft. WSS BORs co.cc e 86.84 89.38 95.80 67 Flame temperature GOW. DOME ..06cecee 3,226 3,302 3,400 2.67 Weight per cu. ft., Ib 0.048517 0.030003 0.043019 0.067202 Specific weight..... 0.6362 0.3933 0.5641 0.8 *Per cent. PEDDEDEDEGSODOGEEDONDOODOREDIOANDDONAODUONDOONDOS DORON DENSA OONSUDENADHONETEDONSBDEROOOOEEDDOEEDOELOTONV ROG OORONDOONAL NAA LODERDIEDOOHONDORDIOA LION &t)( V1 V0 very much—with the exception, of course, of producer gas, which, on account of its high percentage of inerts appears to be in a class by itself. The values for ti three other gases are 87.4, 84.0 and 88.0 B.t.u cu. ft. of gas-air mixture, respectively. The sponding flame temperatures are: 3226 deg., 3302 a and 3400 deg. Fahr., or an increast between natural gas and coke oven gas for decreasing heat value 0 mixture, and an increase again | tween coke oven gas and duo- for an increase in heating This discrepancy, however, disappear as soon as the heat tents of the waste gases are take! into account. These are: For producer gas, 67.39 B.t cu. ft., with a flame temperatu of 2673 deg. Fahr. _ : For natural gas, 86.84 B.tu cu. ft., with a flame tempé! of 3226 deg, Fahr. For coke oven gas, 89.38 B cu. ft., with a flame te! of 3302 deg. Fahr. For duo-gas, 95.80 B.t.u with a flame temp 3400 deg. Fahr. This shows a steady the flame temperature, wi‘) crease in the heat contents waste gases, and it illust: the interrelation between temperature and volum gases or product of nbu Fig. 2 shows a curve p! ites @ data obtained from investg*: February 8, 1923 natural and artificial gases; it gives the flame temperature in relation to the heat ff the waste gases for dry gases, burnt with etically required amount of air, gas and air 1. nee at Fig. 1 makes readily apparent the rea- atural gas with a heating value of 1018 B.t.u. has a flame temperature 0 deg. Fahr. below that of with a heat value of 426 ‘u. ft., and nearly 100 deg. ww that of coke oven gas iting value of 425 B.t.u. per There are two reasons for tion. The first is the large ballast in the form of which is brought along by ‘u. ft. of air required for yn: the second reason is due jrocarbons in the original _ when burning, form car- ; je and water vapors in iuntities than in any of the sin question. these waste gases have a er specific heat than nitro- arge amount of heat de- THE IRON AGE 403 it of of the gas and the air. Such a condition, of course, ) will only make matters worse. : ; It was said before that duo-gas is among the fuel ; ; gases which are of importance for the steel industry. ee In many instances where natural gas is giving out, the : - factory manager will not be satisfied until he finds a substitute which will do the work in the same way as ‘uring combustion is, there- il sumed to. heat up these c | +/—} 4 { luets to furnace tempera- ¥ , ) | | for this reason, made f F i r furnace purposes or fur- , ; YA : The ratio of the com- ; bY a / natter to the ballast (not 14 pout a Yer] : the oxygen) is, in natural an } 8.46. Coke oven gas and 7 4 yn the other hand, require / half this amount of air. / _— ‘form proportionally less car- €& yy | orn xide and water vapor and the } ; thus saved can be used for doing ; ‘+ furnace work. The ratio K combustibles and ballast is .90 and 1 to 3.25 respec- ; ; Producer gas, finally, being : : ean gas with a ratio of 1 to ‘ \ | annot develop enough heat to 6 /44 with 602%, Excess Air rate the required temperature 60} t ' ys ; ; IT sSTs the use of regenerators, in ; ‘ / \Z J536 40. . h gas and air have to be pre- V/)G 7 /, } Vi» |e ; ed to a certain degree. 70 tt hf iff mM nder operating conditions an- {//} ' F ; wane 8: ae lisadvantage will make itself ; /\ TAY HA 1274 ‘ . ; which, however, cannot be LLNS. 54 Dj 2..4 £ a i. That is the impossibility Vi 1 l g, by natural means, the LAG AT FO | 2 f air required for the com- Le VTA, - , f 1 cu. ft. of natural gas VA ff . this cubic foot of the gas, to YoFd Hort mplete and perfect com- Lb YAK rhere is no burner on the yg \ hich will mix more than BC fe 1. ft. of air with 1 cu. ft. (, 4 such a way that com- L, AD ' . y perfect combustion will Af ‘gf : Coke oven gas and OC e, therefore, a decided r \| ver natural gas, because QL - at ae oe + b6-s-3o-. ured is only 4.045 and = 3 HSSstBssee2eg8 & S B cs : respectively. These Deg 44 } ; easily be mixed and Fig. 4. Combustion Curves for Duo-Gas (Combination Coal and Water Gas) 1 combustion. lity of mixing, by natural means, more natural gas. In galvanizing plants, steel mills, welding ¢ ‘u. ft. of air with one cubic foot of gas plants and forge plants, for instance, raw producer gas & proved when a complete analysis of the cannot be used and clean producer gas will not do the s made in a natural gas fired furnace. In work at all, or only under exasperating conditions. In ; se analyses are made with an ordinary such cases duo-gas is the right fuel to be applied. ‘us, giving carbon dioxide, oxygen and car- Or there may be a by-product plant, furnishing coke _ The rest is considered to be nitrogen. for the blast furnaces and gas for the open-hearth and id a good many complete waste gas anal- other furnaces. The coke plant may furnish enough nd have found as high as 15 per cent coke but not enough gas. There, again, duo-gas will 3 to 5 per cent methane, indicating im- fill the want. It has the same heating value as coke : istion on account of an imperfect mixture oven gas and can easily be mixed with it, giving a : > 3 ye -- a ~ ewe. - 404 cf $ rig ( b ! for Coke Oven Gas flame temperature high enough to do any work in the steel plant, without the use of 5 or 6-ft. flues or of gas regenerating chambers. Besides, an installation of duo- gas machines requires little space and not much labor. What is now the actual equivalent value of the dif- ferent gases? If the judgment is based on the heating value, the equivalents will be (using the heating values as given in Fig. 1 and in Table I). 1 cu. ft. of natural gas — 2.40 cu. ft. of coke oven gas or 2.40 cu. ft. of duo-gas or 7.65 cu. ft. of producer gas. In how far are these ratios influenced by the pyro- metric efficiency? To determine this, a comparison will be made between the different gases in question, assum- ing a certain flame temperature, and investigating un- der what conditions this temperature can be obtained, when using the different gases. For this purpose four sets of curves are reproduced in Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. THE TRON f | Pe There is therefore a diff na with natural gas, the ai) AGE February 8, 19>: + The analyses of the o / given in Table I. Assum ducer gas to be preheated deg. Fahr. and the air to 1 Fahr., the theoretical fla perature will be 3400 deg. | obtain the same temperatu ’ the other gases, the air mu / heated, while the gases re) / These air temperatures (following the lines in Fi, | and 6): ath For natural gas, 1640 For coke oven gas, Fahr. i A For duo-gas, 1440 deg. approximately 100 deg. ae te temperatures of the diff. y ./ to obtain the same theoret y <7 ” temperature of 3400 deg y figures show at the same to obtain the desired t: , preheated 200 deg. highe: ry air for duo-gas and 120 than that for coke oven / proves, again, that the h a gas is not a criterion f of efficiency and that A not a B.t.u.” It was said above th: will not be preheated. for this is that, if hydro stant heated over 1500 deg. will be decomposed. N consists of practically hydrocarbons and, for tl 1801 preheating would be det t the value of the gas. T) gases do not contain quantities of hydrocarbor s nat | , ural gas; the loss under ating would, therefore, not b« as with natural gas, but of these gases is not n¢ cause their theoretical! peratures are higher tl natural’ gas. Producs course, must be preheat reasons given above. These conditions 1 fluence the actual equiva of the different gases them completelv. Table II, “Equivale? Heat Values for the + Temperature,” (page these ratios for theoret tions, combustion taking S 5 Ss 60 per cent excess ail seen that, when compar!! ing values of the gases cu. ft. of producer ga of natural gas and 1 ¢ oven gas are equivalent to 1 cu. ft. of duo B.t.u. is equal to 1 B.t.u. But if the furna the pyrometric efficiencies are taken int conditions will become different. Then, 2 producer gas, 0.38 cu. ft. of natural gas a! of coke oven gas are equivalent to 1 cu. ft and the corresponding heat values are: For producer gas, 306 B.t.u. per cu. ft. For natural gas, 367 B.t.u. per cu. ft For coke oven gas, 395 B.t.u. per cu. 1 For duo-gas, 426 B.t.u. per cu. ft. Hence 1 B.t.u. in the form of duo-gas 4 work as 0.72 B.t.u. in the form of produ B.t.u in the form of natural gas and 0.93 B form of coke oven gas. This shows that a a B.t.u., but that the value of the B.t.u. ¢ local, or rather, furnace conditions. It wi that the actual flame temperature has be: S eg. Fahr. below the cal- e. This difference has ar the writer by actual = value of the B.t.u. de- 1 local or furnace condi- asily be shown to be true. 100 this, Table III has been ich gives the same rela- vorked out for different nditions. In this case the values are: for pro- (05 B.t.u. per cu. ft.; for 4 509 B.t.u. per cu. ft.; ven gas, 446 B.t.u. per 07] \ duo-gas, 426 B.t.u. per A) B.t.u. in the form of duo- livalent to, or does the as, 1.65 B.t.u. in the form 2 gas, 1.20 B.t.u. in the \ itural gas and 1.05 B.t.u. a \ 1 of coke oven gas. Again, ot a B.t.u. ling the furnace in the the flame temperature of ras can be predetermined limits. Thus it is pos- rease the differences in _ till more and we may, for , btain an actual flame tem- for the duo or the coke f 3300 deg. Fahr. This ng the equivalent values ese two gases to the same iown on Table III, but ase that between duo- ga itural gas to 1 to 0.65, or in the form of duo-gas same work as 662 B.t.u. 1 of natural gas. In other replace, in the case in itural gas by duo-gas en gas) it is not neces- 1018 ply —— 2.40 cu. ft. of 126 gas for every cu. ft. of 662 ras, but only —— 426 1.56 } s amounts to in dollars in easily be seen from the ileulation: a factory uses 1.5 million itural gas per 24 hr. fora if fii pose, paying 50c. net per | This would amount to a on x $750 per day. To re- juantity by 1,500,000 x ‘suc 2 { million cu. ft. of duo-gas, 7 facturing cost of which is Uc. per 1000 cu. ft., would fuel cost practically the 5720 per day. But taking juivalent or 1,500,000 « 156 = 2.35 million reduce the cost to $470, or saving of $280 ch a saving in the fuel cost would pay for a comparatively short time. rmula (1) was derived above, it was as mplify matters, that the velocity of the ie same in all cases. But when rebuilding ' a new gaseous fuel, it can be built in such the new gas passes with a ‘higher velocity h. Since the heat transmission from the bath is directly proportional, not only to . iture difference and the quantity of waste ilso to the velocity: of travel of the gases, can be designed in such a way that the ports can be varied to suit conditions, and twice that of the old gas may easily be (he temperature difference of the coke oven luo-gas would then be equivalent to twice f THE IRON AGE 405 j An i x > = + Si = S ~+ ¥ oS < ~~ 5 - 4 : € : 7 ~~ . } AY ranrennme. + Fig. 6. Combustion Curve for Natural Gas the value given in Table III, whereas the difference for natural gas, for instance, would remain the same. The final result would be: 1 cu. ft. of coke oven gas or duo- gas is equivalent to 1 cu. ft. of natural gas and 1 B.t.u in the form of the two first named gases does as much work as 2.4 B.t.u. in the form of natural gas. Again, a B.t.u is not a B.t.u. Such conditions have been found to prevail under actual working conditions. In Europe, where there is no natural gas in the districts where the steel indus- tries are located, it has been found that, when compared with producer gas, coke oven gas is much more efficient and economical than raw producer gas. This could not be the case, if it were necessary to replace one gas by the other according to heat values. In the United States, direct comparisons of the equivalent quantities {UF YUNEVRERORNDEH eoeFENERFEDET FH EErrs COPA CEENOTURANE TD LY: con GnnD Fen ERBRRNIREL TENE CE DSEREEEER HRRETEONTY HART (Concluded on page 451) Se ARE GAC. err AAS ENING AEN 0c AROMA A ORD: EN cml nin en Veg! tale hb lS ran eho seacer’ s “a siaaktarntles nasi 1) Ios + hy SAR ARAN RSs ¥ iting Re ee eee 4 5 ? : ‘> e ; ‘ . ie « $4. a ee ne _ ae 406 BAKING ENAMEL Electric Furnace Used for Castings and Sheet Metal Operating Features Outlined For baking vitreous enamel on cast iron stove parts and on sheet metal, the Galusha Stove Co., Rochester, N. Y., employs the electrically heated furnace shown in the accompanying illustration, which in addition to features of design is of interest because of some of the factors connected with its operation. The furnace operates at from 1200 to 1400 deg. Fahr., with a maximum temperature range of 2000 deg. Fahr., and has a connected load of 118 kw. at 230 volts, 3 phase, 60 cycles. Its capacity is estimated at approximately 7 lb. of metal per kwhr. The two classes of material require for their baking two temperature settings, and durations of baking, the cast iron parts being baked at a temperature of 1250 deg. Fahr. for 9 min., and the sheet steel at 1400 deg. for 4 min. The company buys power from the central Electric Vitreous Enamel Furnace Installation Spraying equipment is in the same room and sprayed parts are assem- bled on trucks near the oven station on what is known as a three rate schedule, whereby power used at a steady demand for 24 hr. a day earns the lowest power rate. A schedule has been worked out for the operation of the furnace so that its running periods are a tailed with those of the other power using devices in the foundry of the plant, so that no additional demand is created during the day- time. By this method the operating expenses of the furnace itself are held to a very low level, and by not running the furnace in peak hours through the winter months, further economy has been effected. In addi- tion to the factors outlined, economical operation is further attributed to the speed with which the material is finished, and the reduced attendance necessary. The percentage of rejects from the electric furnace is said to be only about 4 per cent by weight of all the material baked, which is considered noteworthy in this case, because a large proportion of the work baked is enameled in white or light gray, colors that are very susceptible to spoilage from a contaminated atmos- phere, either in the furnace itself, or in the neighbor- hood. Space and time have been saved in this case by in- stalling the spraying equipment in the same room with the furnace, and to assemble the sprayed parts on trucks to be baked, where they are left until their turn THE IRON AGE February &, | 9: ho comes, in close proximity to the furnace. The is operated by men who previously had little oy perience either with electric furnaces, or with . ing itself, The equipment consists of the furnace pro; the automatic control panel and instrument. 1 nace is constructed of brick, with a refracto and having a sliding door that gives access upper compartment from the front. The din of the overall working space are 5 ft. deep x wide x 23 in. high. The interior is divided hori into two compartments by narrow shelves on e wall, which support the sides of the tray on w) work to be baked is set. Nickel chromium he: are mounted away from the side walls, and lis tributed about evenly between the upper an wer compartments. This arrangement, together curved roof, is intended to cause the heat to st charge from all directions, and permit of unifo: distribution throughout the furnace interior. T perature is automatically controlled by a Leeds @ Northrup Co. instrument and an automatic panel carrying contactors and overload relay TI heating elements and the control panel are of | Electric Co. manufacture. Coke Production Increases UNIONTOWN, Pa., Feb. 3.—Coke productior Connellsville bituminous region continues it nsis tent gain, car placements for coke operations having continued favorably during the week. Output for th week was 245,690 tons, a gain of 11,010 tons over the preceding week. The average production for the first four weeks of the year was 231,145 tons as compared with an average production of 86,735 tons for the first four weeks of 1922. If the present ratio is maintained, the production for the year will aggregate approxi- mately 12,000,000 tons, a greater total than any year since 1916 when the production was 16,138,590 tons Coke car placements on the Monongahela and Penn- sylvania railroads, which handle the bulk of the ‘coke business in the region, averaged around 80 per cent during the week. Additional ovens to the number of 506 were put in operation during the week, 154 at furnace and 352 at merchant operations. Coal output is less satisfactory due to a car supply which is not exceeding 10 per cent for the region. Cok prices remain firm, but coal prices are softening, despit the small car supply. The strikers still are showing their resentment and many of them are seeking their old places at the var ious operations in the county. When taken back, how- ever, they return to work on the basis of new ployees. Steel Corporation’s Accident Prevention In the United States Steel Corporation No. 9 issued by its Bureau of Safety, Sanitation Welfare, there is shown a decrease in the accident rat for 1922 of 56.13 per cent as compared with injuries in 1906 on a seale of 1000 employees. This figur pe r cent lower than for 1921 and represents neat) 3000 individuals saved from serious injury. The! ber of serious injuries has been constantly dim! since 1906, the only notable interruption coming war period when production was so greatly 4 ated. During 16 years, the total number of ) or 313 saved from serious injury is 35,3 Electric Power Club to Meet in June The next annual meeting of the Electric Power ‘ will be held June 11 to 14, inclusive, at the Homesteée Hot Springs, Va., where the association was ore in 1908. It is expected that important standardiza' of electric power apparatus will be effected at the mm’ ing, because the new edition of the Electric Power © = Handbook will be published soon thereafter, and ! different sections of the club are working to accomp' as much as possible to get the work into the new book. A aa hand- To Test Flexible Provisions of Tariff Law Fordney-McCumber Plan of Adjusting Rates Found Difficult to Work Out—Larger Appropriations for Investigations Needed BY L. W. \ INGTON, Feb. 6.—Test of the practicability of t e provisions of the Fordney-McCumber tariff it to be made. This plan of adjusting duties is an entirely new departure in the history ited States Government. Its incorporation in iw was made at the insistence of President Harding himself. It has been generally accepted as in agency for scientific tariff making because er it, within certain limits and under certain can be adjusted to changing economic con- roughout the world. \dmittedly, however, it is not known how satisfac- provisions may work and because of this, interest is being manifested in hearings e held on applications made under the flexible reduce or increase import duties. At the 1e, study of the provisions has revealed the they will have to be amended in some respects re they are perfected. This has been pointed out y Edward P. Costigan of the United States Tariff Commission and has been recognized generally by those who have kept in touch with developments since the new law became operative and under which, it is said, 100 applications for changes in rates have been made. French Refuse Information An instance of a difficulty in applying the flexible provisions in their entirety is the recent refusal ot French manufacturers to divulge the cost of production products exported to the United States and which compete with American products. It has been that if no way is found to get this infor- will be virtually impossible to carry out the ng that rates of duty may be readjusted the difference in the cost of production at road, time ago, the commission sent two agents to signed to France, Belgium and Switzerland preliminary data to be used in the price of for changes in rates. They had hardly n France when they were met with one another with regard to information about iction costs, and it has been indicated that of the French manufacturers may be fol- inufacturers in other foreign countries on ground that the diversity of lustry is such that investigations of this ild not give results of practical utility, the en by the principal speaker for the French rs, M. Lewis Pommery. ff act, of course, carries stern provisions of haracter by which imports from countries ition of this kind is denied could actually But it is evident that the United States loes not desire to resort to the use of such inless there should be much more serious than is anticipated at this time. conditions Serious Lack of Funds ae known also, the Tariff Commission is i i y a lack of funds to carry on extensive este s in the United States and foreign coun- man Thomas O. Marvin of the commission e the commission has only $150,000 addi- MOFFETT tional funds to carry on the work until the end of the current fiscal year, June 30, the investigations will not be elaborate. The commission also was unable to per- suade the Bureau of the Budget and Congress of the necessity of the $1,000,000 appropriation it sought for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924. Instead the Bureau of the Budget pared this sum down to $700,000, which was allowed by Congress. It is stated that this means the investigations under the flexible provisions will not be so elaborate as the commission had hoped. There appear, however, to be two schools of thought with respect to the intent of the flexible provisions. Under one of them, much more extensive investigations would be required than under the other. It is the opinion of one school, referred to as a low tariff ek- ment, that the flexible provisions are meant to be used for gradual and complete readjustment of the tariff, on a so-called scientific basis, following careful investiga- tions. This policy put into effect, actually would take the tariff out of politics, or at least virtually out of the hands of Congress except, of course, the l