The Iron Age 1923-01-11: Vol 111 Iss 2

¥ +2 i * a9 ree way, New York, January 11, 1923 ESTABLISHED 1855 VOL. I11, No. 2 Conditions Faced by Machine Tool Builder Why It Is Difficult to Secure Continuously Satisfactory Activity—How Some of the Problems Have Been Met BY J. J. RALPH experienced the extreme of a condition of change entirely without precedent. Record general activity abruptly dropped to almost complete stagnation and now apparently the industries are ascending to mod- Pe two years the metal-working industries have € af # ne Bu der fs £S wach q Materia/s_e tt gaw . =e bp 2ufacturiry rriovemertt JS dasa rmnajor Cc e % & e tb manufacture, to expans/orr ra & Q Yy f 8 felt bi cute pressure leads ~ AR Wh olesa/ler Reta lop & N t S y S { orre ST, =~, of Faw materia/and With achve sthimu/atior Supp/ies to fee/ the benefit \ \ =v Manufacturer starts wholesaler _ Stimulus upply SCSSUTeE /S by deliveries Airhg the~ momentum of unfilled and raw materia/s exhausted ge satis 5 curs a major tion of needs consurner dernand. Non- 4099: gely depleted tron as tfand jose to meet new /eve/ d over avera ry aon fac lar he increase of prices orders delays transir/ss/or7 both of firrished goods ofthe effect CA Demand exceeds s Consurmer Manufacturers stock Wholesa/e stocks ofdermnand mroverriert intensified This leads UP recogni = TInMAFe Fig. 1 Picture of a Prosperity Cycle Covering a Curves are plotted to allow room for notation and areas These curves show: orders and e/lation of A time of uncertainty and (rndecisior Cessation car silk is heavy at good prices. The automobile manu- facturer, controlling the entire distribution chain from production, through publicity, straight to retail sales, increased quality, decreased price and has.seen this year a record breaker. Both of these demands are re- ail fo normalcy — Recovery 6. more slowly e frorr7 NCr@ases cad cee: fe-erntrance Or VCUCCeESSIVEG S distarr consumer pr a ce Simple Chain of Manufacture and Distribution are not balanced. a, Basic dependence upon consumer and the lag in acceleration based on activity of link nearest to consumer. b, Over capacity of the industrial world because of necessity of accommodating the peak demands instead of the average. c, The carrying over of activity due to momentum of unfilled orders d, Lag in recovery awaiting digestion of product manufactured. \ctual curves would show a succession of peaks and valleys, hiding critical points until well after the cycle has definitely passed each pivot point. erate life with many readjustments still pending and in uncertain trend in the long run in respect to prices. What has been done by the manufacturer, wel! situated financially after five years of pressing demand and then confronted with immediate stagnation though with an enormous latent consumers’ market? The existence of such a market was abundantly proved by the silk and automobile industries. In the former the drop in prices carried right through to the retailer and the consumer was given an opportunity ) buy at bargain prices. He did, and today business in garded as luxury needs. There was no correspondingly notable increase in motor truck sales. Obviously if there is plenty of capacity for luxury, there is ability to satisfy other needs. It took time to assimilate the fact that the cessation of commerce was not merely a lull. Some factories were run under almost full headway for a long time waiting for a supposed banked-up demand to remove the goods from their shelves. With realization of the stone wall obstacles, production was dropped either to nothing or to the point of minimum loss, the future éf ft 138 THE IRON AGE considered. A part of the metal-working industry is still in this condition. It has resulted in an elimination of present non-essentials, no matter how desirable in themselves, and in the thorough institution of not merely economical but niggardly policies. Enough time has passed for readjustment and the making of plans for renewed activity, and we can now see what steps have been taken to remedy matters. For this purpose a series of symbolic curves has been drawn. These introduce the element of time which does not usually receive the attention its importance warrants. Fig. 1 shows an almost ideally simple distribution January 11, 1923 trical plant illustration. The life of a business organ- ization may run for centuries. During times of de- pression there is seldom doubt of the accuracy of the principle. The reaction to stress varies with the individual judgment as to the probable length of the emergency, individual combativeness and resourcefulness, financia) condition and the place in the scheme of distribution. Monopolizing the Market There are a few methods of meeting the situation: Monopolizing the market; aggressively developing the present market; finding new markets; reopening the scheme. It refers not to general conditions but to those present market by rendering existing equipment obso- ss on factory Productive / Capacity evened up by Stocks Consumers Dernand ' — a MMEDIATE SerrreT AL AVAILABLE STOCKS Fig 2 Effect of Stocks on MMIC U C Crreth | iV ° : ; Hand. On arising market with . rel gp) x Ss brisk demand stocks are _ in- ie M2on j WY ¢ 510! ap g creased by all parties The a Pos 5 U > a p= (O'——++ + HS failure angle shows that under © YY» = 2 & + + + or resentment the consumer can YW~.«t ers = ¢ } ] t his purchases to very little a = | tur mee imit his purchases to very little uj >+q ‘ cihcnidlinal 1 : and in some cases t nothing. > MgDs alc | > verage int e ¢ ¢ oO oO ra | Whgs The opportunity angle shows > | aera — se —_ $ - that the consumer if handled OQ © oO. | S correctly is in position to absorb Wy Ea / <a x far more goods than is com- - os 2G; Q wm cs I & Diy he monly realized — eS +. } + Ym + 5 = VU | Py K u £ O Q 3 - 5 6 T 8 9 TIME in a single line. The general prosperity curve will be lete; taking on contract work; adding side lines; chang- compounded of similar curves covering all of the varied activities of the country. For most goods the chain from raw materials is far longer and those shown here as machinery builders are in their turn the final con- sumers. 2 shows the effect of stock on demand under Fig. very elementary conditions. In bringing into the prob- lem the question of consumers’ stocks, attention is forced toward the least-known element of the production problem because their extent and sufficiency is so de- pendent upon the consumer’s personal feelings. These curves illustrate the reason for the excess manufacturing capacity over average demand and for the more than double normal machine manufacturing capacity over that necessary if orders were received evenly. There is a continual growth in the consumptive capacity of the country which masks these conditions some of the time. The peculiar dependence of the machine builder on the condition of the manufacturer’s plant and demand is also illustrated. Here is a situation where sales ex- cept for replacement are impossible irrespective almost of the price asked for the product, unless the plant is so busy that additional capacity is necessary. Fig. 3 shows at A a typical electrical plant load curve. It is plain that with a unit price for electricity, investment and expenses must be in proportion to the peak and income in proportion to the average load. With this fluctuation occurring daily there is constant pressure to straighten the curve, and for some years this has been almost the most pressing problem of the central station. At B is the manufacturers’ curve of Fig. 1. The likeness is apparent, and it is of equal importance to even out the curve. The fact that the fluctuations extend over years rather than hours does not destroy the suggestion of the likeness of the elec- ing lines; marking time; amalgamating, and finally quitting. Even in the worst of times there is some business The standard first aid is to cut prices and take more than the share normally due. This was clearly brought out as a former practice at the Pittsburgh basing hear- ing by Judge Gary where, speaking of a mill desirous of selling its product, he said, “ it would sell at whatever price it could get. . It is impossible to say what a large or very prosperous company will not do to keep its mills filled.” Today this is not con- sidered sporting and the pressure is insufficient actually to start extreme competition. Should conditions warrant, kid gloves will be dis- pensed with. It means the elimination of the weakest companies. The price battle forces the product to places where it has not yet been used. It was this sort of competition that helped to hasten the displacement of some forms of wrought iron with steel. Should such come again it might well force the use of steel into small house construction. Aggressive Development of Present Markets The successful solution of the problem by the auto- mobile industry has already been mentioned. Because their goods practically all are taken by the ultimate consumer, the results have been immediate and suc- cessful beyond expectation. There are lines, such as automatic sprinkler systems, which, cutting into expenses similar to insurance, are likewise almost independent of the volume of manu- factured product. Their markets have been effectively developed. By judicious advertising manufacturers of materials reaching the market in unchanged condition have been able to force better consumption. This is a fortunate position toward which many concerns are and January 11, 1923 have been working, and is one of the advantages of trade-mark individuality as against products without such distinction. Raw material suppliers have devoted much atten- tion to present market possibilities. In the metal trades the influence of the campaign of the associated copper g industries is being increasingly felt and the effect is zi umulative. This method has been almost out of the question for those whose product is used by industries z which are quiescent. It is difficult to sell tin cans to a j anner who is not operating. Enlarging the Market Enlarging the market has been the method looked ) in every period of depression. For the first time we ive no immediate considerable opportunity to annex w foreign markets. Other countries have need of sods which we can furnish, but they are not in the tion to pay. We seem unable to finance them fur- at the moment, or are slow in doing so. Where ficient ingenuity exists opportunity for such move- nt is found but not enough to afford general relief. Every line still is offered a considerable open market this country. As usual the leaders are far in advance | the opportunity lies in educating the followers and pplying their needs. The cost of such selling is high ? nd the margin of possible profit available for substi- ; ne s Ee ition and replacement in these more backward fac- m es is less than in those of the leaders. In times such these the margin may not be there at all. Often a purely virgin field is found. For instance, here is the manufacturer of internal grinding machines ho brought out a machine to handle automobile cylin- Ae Aye! 3 re pote on age $69nN369Nn oh HOURS YEARS \n Electrical Plant Load A and the Production B of the Machine Builder Bring Out the Essential of Fixed Investments and Charges Proportional Peak, and Revenue Proportional to the Average Load grinding in repair shops and ran his factory day ght. The market for small air and electric tools g similarly enlarged. Rendering Existing Equipment Obsolete Xendering existing equipment obsolete was a prime e lof yesterday. It is still available if the product ™ e improved sufficiently. The difficulty is that to- q he mass of products are already so refined that a with the utmost development in a time of depres- . there is little or no economy in replacing existing bs ment. a recent advertisement the General Electric Co. “The greatest cost savings of today and tomor- in methods of moving rather than in methods iking.” We may be pardoned a little skepticism, we surely cannot expect such developments in man- turing machines, particularly metal working, as characterized the past two decades with their in- iction of high-speed steel, electric drive and suc- illy intricate automatic operation. Chere are backward industries, and changing condi- THE’~ IRON AGE 139 tions of costs, including the rising values of fuel, are directing attention to institutions which seemingly were fully developed and fixed. We must look for the most advance in those industries which have changed least since 1900. The Plan of Marking Time The decision of some managers is to hibernate, to slash expenses to the bone, to get rid of everybody possible, to cut out sales work, advertising, develop- ment, manufacture—and worry or play golf as nature and pocketbook permit. This has been a rather gen- eral solution and in many cases where plant and dis- tribution permit of no other product, the only one. It is the choice of the man who figures that pros- perity will return shortly and is the negative choice of the man of indecision. It may be the wise policy for the man of limited resources, which, carefully handled, may carry him through, and the man of small contact with lines outside of own and who knows his own limitations. for his Amalgamation as a Remedy Combining manufacturing enterprises seems to be a popular way out. It usually means the elimination and retirement of part of the personnel and capital of one or of all of those combining; or addition of further capital, the consolidation of sales activities, or the reduction as far as possible of those things which go to make up overhead. Sometimes it is accompanied by the complete submergence of one in the other and again there is seemingly a continuation of individual entities. the It is too early yet to know the fate of the present amalgamations. Judging from the past, a few will be eminently successful; more will just make ends meet, and the remainder after sundry reorganizations will either be shaken down into a going organization or be ripe for further amalgamation. The leading concerns in most of our various lines of activity have been built up in this way, so there is successful precedent. Where the basis is stock promotion, the result is bound almost certainly to be failure. Where fathered by purely financial interests, there is usually weakness. The combination fathered by men well experienced in the industry, taking in only such concerns as will strengthen the weak places of the others, is the likely A healthy thinning of book values is of ines- timable value. The drag of trying to pay dividends on water and the capital value of past mistakes has success. often been impossible to overcome. Unbalanced production lines, inadequate capital for a healthy enterprise, extension of sales activity, prac- tical control of an industry, indispensable patents or facilities; superior technical, and management talent are all adequate reasons for consolidation. Some- sales times pooling the resources of several shaky concerns, consolidating activities into one or two plants, merciless conversion of dead assets into live will make a really powerful and successful organization. Smoothing the Load Curve by Varying Activity No sober-minded manufacturer with four-fold the capacity of 1915 and knowing his competitors to be similarly equipped could figure that it was going to be anything but a long time before he could expect decent operating conditions unless he took radical remedial steps. It is interesting to see capital taking the same stand that the striking coal miner does. The National Ma- chine Tool Builders’ Association has served notice on the trade that because of the unevenness of demand it will be necessary for manufacturers to pay higher prices for machine tools. Of course the carpenter out of a job will use a pick when he gets hungry enough and eft 140 THE IRON AGE every manufacturer is going to get busy when he needs the cash badly enough. The machine tool builder is in the same class with many other manufacturers—catering to industries which must be in full blast before they can prosper. In most cases there are short periods of high activity with the at a period of lowest net costs be- cause of possibility of quantity production. Between these periods lie quiescent times with but small demand. Prices, when considered on a poundage basis, shop running full « however, ar Work January 11, 1923 cost too much or was a distinct advance in practice, or was thoroughly developed and covered with patents. The amount of money that is being spent in the endeavor to find suitable products to manufacture is amazing. In one small manufacturing city there are three plants which, taken together, have spent over $300,000 in such investigation. Indications are that this record can be duplicated in other places. The prosperity of these cities depends upon the manufacturing, and the banks have been right behind such activities. There is Fig. 4.—What Takes Place in the ce Lu Development of a New Ente: © T [Design payee arting Fo Production — — prise. Such are usually started a onsideratiok s anu, upcture —t— a in hard times and using either PE nenietege seaien _| Experiment = =Pevelo opment a ~— scale show that the new en- terprise will be of little ance as an addition to an exist- ing enterprise. The assist- sketch 2 YEARS ol. hp : q 72 a -——-—_——-+—— — ort ——— +—- as ) ; . : are good. The field will, therefore, always be attrac- tive to the outsider with a standard line which carries his overhead, so that some machine tool business is cake for completing his repast. The occasional period of full blast will let him clean up a little cash reserve. The necessity of evening the load curve has been the lesson of every past depression and is that of today. The extent to which such action is desirable depends upon the normal distance between peaks of the produc- tion curve and the normal profit of the regular line. The less the difference between peak and average pro- duction, and the shorter the time interval covered by the valley, the less the desirability of balancing products to even up the curve. Of course, in a line with in- creasing competition or decreasing general use with their lessening margins of profit, must find new avenues of activity. 1 shows that the peaks of produc- in relative height as also does the dura- tion of length of the from the the growing concern A glance at Fig. tion increase depression period, with increase final consumer in the three of distance distribution. There are cardinal methods in use to even up this curve, so that local depressions may not unduly affect production. Varied geographical distribution of customers Service ft i variety of industries Manufac re of a number of products Leaders in of activity have this. Consider the activities of the United States Stee the General Electric Co. and the Standard further every line long realized ] Seimikedieis safeguard there has been an endeavor to add to lines of products so!d to manufa | I ' rs t Are Supe I d I lt ble I iti | S f } | ) turers, other lines ld d ectly to the consuming publie, thus giving ypportunity for market expansion by the oo } ¢ ann fant ring ~—yY 1a exercise of salesmanship and manufacturing economies, The needs and willingness to entertain new ideas has varied greatly. At one extreme was the manufac- turer who was willing to sell all of his equipment above and devote all something that that necessary for pre-war production resources and energies to offered was the man who was willing to add another specialty etting out oO } I possibilities of full operation. At the if it would sell to his present trade, provided it did not chain of other shows optimism in charting a profit in from 9 to 18 months 5 after starting marketing in a time of depression usually plenty of non-liquid assets but promotion work takes cold hard cash. It has not been feasible to un- dertake permanent financing because the cost of money has been far too high and for the most part the new enterprises were and still are in the nature of a gamble Delay in Realizing Remedies Fig. 4 is an illustrative curve showing the time taken in developing a typical enterprise and shows clearly why the remedial effect has not yet been felt. Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Here A is the Production Curve of a Going S Enterprise; B = shows This Curve Superimposed on a the Production = Curve of Fig | The question of = profit is not here considered 2734567 8 § 0 | is this curve production curve of Fig. 1 to activity on production. It is clear from this that case of speedy return of prosperity it will accentuate the stress of good times rather than relieve the tensio1 shows the possible effect on the pro the purchase of superimposed on the remedial effect of such in the } 1] show tne possibile Fig. 6 curve of of today. duction amalgamation or moribund or small developing enterprises. In good times “fortune makers” are peddled to th populace with illustrative instances of past great fo tunes reaped from small investments. The manufac turer with a sufficient sure income and crowded factor) interested in undertaking other burdens of he and the business Is not ‘ulative nature. In poor times man go hunting for these possible bonanzas. It has been and still is a good time for the invento) His rewards may range from only $2,000 to $15,000, ut they are in cash and the backing is that of a manu facturer and not that of a quick-rich artist. There often a salary and an interest in future profits or royalty to go with the sale. is a peculiar when his ideas are splendid, the usual experience 1 dealing with him is to lose money. The careful desig: checking of drawings to eliminat errors and decrease shop costs; microscopical analys to reduce failure; standardization, sal analysis, with plodding sales effort, are not in line wit his training or his talents. At times it has prove profitable to give him separate quarters and facilities for starting new ideas while his old ones are rework¢ sales and financia The average inventor being. Eve! and making and chances of by designer cooperating with shop, January 11, 1923 epartments. The product may not be recognizable as .e original but it will work and stand a chance of ‘cess. There are a lot of struggling propositions on the . a arket, some of which have gone down for the third : a time but are well worth salvaging; and these are being tthered in. Sometimes they are in trouble because lack of money, or faulty sales work, or design, or a xcessive manufacturing costs. They may be new or 4 they may be old. Some have had a lot of money spent them, usually not wisely, but the ice has been broken nd there is something of a market for them. They ive become known, and with the rectifying of defi- encies and faults they will yield rich revenue. An old sewing machine company in this way fath- ed a bicycle in 1896 and while still among the largest nanufacturers of both has just added to its line a home vashing machine whose producers failed. It was neces- iry to re-design the machine, recast the manufactur- end, re-vamp the advertising and replace both the iles policy and the sales force. But it is going and market is far from saturated for a product with a large margin of profit. Fire arms manufacturers have vone into hardware and dish washers through the same ute, Labor-Saving Devices for Added Lines The making of labor-saving devices has been a stand-by of the manufacturing industry, particularly of the machinery manufacturer, and to it again he turns for relief. There is one problem in the textile industry still handled satisfactorily only by hand. Dozens are employed in many mills at this work. At least three a manufacturers are attempting to replace them with au- a tomatic machinery but to date with only part success. pa One has spent over $80,000 in this experimenting. An- other has spent much more. Similarly the building, road making, mining, transportation, agricultural and all other industries using large quantities of hand ior are being carefully searched for opportunities for r-saving machinery. \ full half of the labor of the country is done by en. Their average usage of machinery is still and this is perhaps the largest field open. En- has been made in vacuum cleaning, washing, e ning, dish washing, bread-making machines and the The market for these specialties has not yet been hed. The distribution is partly dependent upon extension of the use of electricity. The retail prices, rae iuse of the high cost of distribution and because the ifacturers still have a developing market rather a competitive one, are still high, and prohibit uni- use Sie COKE PRODUCTION Shortage Curtails Operations—Very Large Value for 1922 NIONTOWN, PA., Jan. 8.—Intensive campaign for tained increase in coke production is being con- n the Connellsville field. Coke companies also rted to have the edge on the coal companies in on in the way of car supply. pite the strike in the unorganized Connellsville ke production in 1922 showed an increase of r cent over the production for the year 1921. rage realized price is placed at $7.15 a ton for ir. This record was maintained in operations ng approximately seven months out of the 12. production for 1922 was 5,675,000 tons. Re- ‘le as was the increase in output, when all cir- tances connected with the year’s operations are nto consideration, the increase in the value of duct stands out even more conspicuously, the THE IRON AGE 141 Improved machinery for the lines which are not yet fully advanced also offers a field which is being investi- gated. A press manufacturer has brought out a new nail-making machine and claims half labor and half investment cost. A concrete machinery manufacturer advertises a tumbling barrel. Every machine for which there is a market is being thoroughly analyzed to see if it cannot be made smaller, more cheaply, to give a greater range of product, lower maintenance, deprecia- tion and operating costs.’ If the design has not been changed in several years, it is almost certain that here lies a good opportunity. Poaching Each year fundamental patents, the basis of some industry or company business expire. Usually they have been bolstered up with a series of other patents, but a cunning designer can often get around these, some- times placing one which will take the design advantage away from the originator. Somewhat allied to this is the attack of the small manufacturer on the high margin profit items of the large industry. Searching for a suitable product he finds a machine which he can make in his factory, underselling the big fellow either because of specialized attention; decreased overhead, or inferior quality. An output so small as to mean a loss to a large plant may be the making of a little one. Every success in a new line brings imitators. The motto of many investors seems to be well expressed in a paraphrase of Pope’s famous stanza: In products as in fashion the same rule will hold, Be not the first the new to use nor yet the last to lay the old aside Past experience seems to show that followers reap about as big reward as the pioneers and have a lot less hard luck, worry and trouble. A universal criticism of our foreign sales was that we only pushed them in poor times and neglected them in good seasons. The same holds true with these new lines. If they are worth starting, they deserve maximum efforts. Some factories have several such lines ac- quired to fill in with which have never returned profits. By the time sales efforts started to show results, the old line picked up again and the new was neglected, to be picked up again and played with similarly at the next depression. The greater the eventual market, the more difficult and costly to reach. The time taken to popularize is in proportion. Organizations starting new lines bring with them the sales habits and ways of thinking of the old ones, and must often first learn what must be avoided value for 1922 being $40,576,250. In 1917 the market value was $111,288,630 or $55,520,020 greater than in 1916. In 1920, with a production practically the same as in 1919, the value increased by $41,030,088. Car shortage is proving the big factor which is hampering production in the region now. The strike long ago ceased to be a factor in the regional output and, in fact, there were reports in the region during the past week that the United Mine Workers were pre- paring to call off the strike in the region. It is re- ported that a special investigating committee from the international headquarters is to make a report on the situation amongthe tent colonies and barracks of strik- ers, estimated to number around 2500. Considerable sums of money are being paid as benefits to the strik- ers in the region and most observers admit that the chances of organizing the Connellsville field long since have passed into history. Two committees of the Fayette Green Coal Pro- ducers Association are conducting an investigation into the car situation, one committee dealing with the Penn- sylvania Railroad and the other with the Baltimore & Oh *. Riga eg MI wie ho Pe yar sie spe peqeertn - SS ~ sa et 142 THE IRON AGE Improves Hack Saw Machine E. C. Atkins & Co., Indianapolis, have placed on the market an improved Kwik-Kut hack saw machine hav- ing a solid cabinet base, which contains the settling tank compound reservoir and pump. Heavy construc- tion throughout to minimize vibration and wear is em- phasized as a feature. The machine has an automatically adjusted stroke according to the size of the material in the vise, a fea- The Sett g Tank Compound Reservoir and Pump Are In- ided I the Cabinet Base ture intended to permit of greater speed, with practi- cally no waste of blade. The saw frame travels on a T bar and can be kept in adjustment by means of screws so that it will always be traveling in a straight line. The blade holder is equipped with a gage to show whether the blade is adjusted perpendicularly to the bottom of the vise, and to the side of the vise. The blade guide rides on top of the blade, an arrangement intended to prevent the blade from running sidewise in the cut. Oil cups and oil holes are provided where re- quired. The link blocks are of bronze. The feed of the machine is controlled by a hydraulic dash pot, greater or less feed being secured simply by turning a by-pass cock. Where a constant feed is re- quired the by-pass cock can be set at the proper feed. The hydraulic dash pot also serves as a cushion to the raising device so that the blade is lowered into the cut witho The new machine is designated as Problems Related to the Hardening of Steel One of the most fascinating and yet obscure sub jects in ferrous metallurgy concerns the problem of the hardening of steel by a suitable quenching treat- ment and a subsequent tempering of it by slight heat ing. The interest is centered around the hard con stituent or structural condition, known as martensite, the name being derived from the noted German metal lurgist, Marte An investigation has recently been completed by the Bureau of Standards which has a bearing on this general subject, and Scientific Paper No. 452, entitled “Structure of Martensitic Carbon Steel and Changes in Microstructure Which Occur upon Tempering.” s paper may be secured at 15c per copy from the superintendent of documents, Govern ment Printing Office, Washington. The study with which this paper deals was based upon the microstructure of a series of steels of pro ore Th gressively increasing carbon content when hardened under different conditions of temperature and heating periods, and the changes in structure which ensue in the same upon tempering. Practically nothing is gained in hardness by using very high temperatures or very long heating periods prior to the quenching of steel, provided that the “critical” temperature is exceeded upon heating. This conclusion was based upon small January 11, 1923 be specimens treated in the laboratory, in practice, o course allowance must be made for the size and shap of the pieces treated. The general conclusion is vali i however. oe The changes which take place in a hardened ste hey upon tempering occur in well defined stages. Unt ce the temperature of reheating exceeds 250 or 300 de; | C (480 to 570 deg. Fahr.) no marked change is to b oe noted in the visible microstructure, even at very hig magnification, although pronounced changes in th dimensions and density often do take place even such low temperatures. Above 250 deg. C, the separ: tion of the carbon-bearing compound, cementite, fro. the martensite begins and at 400 to 500 deg. C. (75 to 930 deg. Fahr.) the steel shows a very fine granula structure under the microscope. As the temperatur of reheating is increased, the granules increase in siz although a high magnification is still required for se ing them, and the steel becomes softer and finally los all of the high tensile properties it gained by th hardening treatment. v oa! PR New Small Electric Motor The Master Electric Co., Dayton, Ohio, has in pr duction a new motor made in sizes from 1/3 to 1% hy A feature is the symmetrical frame; the frame dime) 5 ee sions on the commutator end are the same as on th Nae shaft-projection end. The frames of the motor are ir terchangeable for alternating and direct current. Amor other features are a compact short-circuiting devic removable, self-alining, phosphor bearings; and a dua wick oiling system. The line of the Master company’s motors compris‘ j 4g to 1% hp. alternating current, single phase, repu sion induction motors; polyphase induction motors a! compound wound direct current motors; and up to 2 hj high speed. A feature of the repulsion induction typ: motors emphasized is the unusually high starting torque with low starting current consumption. The; are designed to start heavy overloads with so slight eg The Frame Dimensions on Commutator and Shaft Sy Ends Are the Same f lrop in line voltage that the annoyance of light flick: a ing is practically eliminated. They also operate hea\ . overloads and under low adverse voltage conditior A point emphasized is that a fuse which will hold th motor while starting will give adequate protection wh the motor is running. The report of operations of member foundries _ the Ohio State Foundrymen’s Association for Noven ber shows a slight increase over the percentage October, the figures being 63.3 per cent against 61 per cent of normal. A slight decline was recorded the non-ferrous division, the figures for November bei! 73.75 against 74 for October. The association’s bul: tin contains an optimistic reference to the future of t! casting business. BY HE chemical behavior of the various elements which are employed in the metallurgy of iron de- pends in an important degree on their individual rific powers or heats of combustion with oxygen also on the way in which their chemical affinities changed by high temperatures. s article deals only with matters connected with netallurgy of iron carried on by heat in which the rials are obtained or treated in a fused state. matters might be classed under the head or of “Chemistry of Fusion,” an unwritten depart- of chemistry, which even now is needed by metal- [he chemical relations and affinities of the elements ) affected and changed by heat and fusion that ibject requires to be considered and treated by apart from aqueous chemistry. Thus carbon has er at the temperature of the blast furnace to re- from their oxides, in addition to the iron, sev- of the elements, including silicon and phosphorus, ch are dealt with in iron and steel metallurgy and ‘h have lower calorific power than carbon when ed to carbonic acid (CO.). It cannot, however, e in any important degree certain other elements iding aluminum, magnesium and calcium, whose ts of combustion are also less than that of carbon tioned, There is still much to be learned in the realm of chemistry of fusion which applies to iron metal- The data are by no means complete. For each nent or substance the specific heat at all attainable eratures and for each compound the fusion vapor- and dissociation points are needed and are for st part lacking. Nevertheless, the information herein may be of some value to the reader in ng some of the phenomena he meets in work- iu Elements Removable in Steel Making the oxidizing steel-making processes there are inl nts in the charge which are to be eliminated more completely and others to be added according to nd of product desired. Thus crude iron always the removable elements silicon, carbon and inese. Of partly removable elements it contains 1orus, sulphur and perhaps chromium and copper. “a rsistent or non-removable elements it may con- ‘kel, arsenic, tungsten or molybdenum, any or (he elements to be added may be any of the fol- list: Carbon, manganese, silicon nickel, chro- tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, titanium, vana- ilphur and phosphorus. e of the elements which enter into iron and tallurgy are controlled commercially by parties interested in making the demand for them as By s possible. Business standards, which are quite F t from scientific standards, may therefore con- statements made concerning them. One must id, therefore, that emphasis, if not exaggera- sometimes involved in statements relating to 1 qualities, while at the same time unknown. ral, or harmful features or properties may be rnored, Calorific Power of the Elements ‘alorific powers of the elements employed in tallurgy when burned with oxygen are given in lowing table. One kilogram of the element Calorific Value of Steel-Making Elements Chemistry of Fusion or the Behavior and Influence of Iron HENRY 143 of Each Element on the Metallurgy HIBBARD burned to the product indicated generates the calories stated. Table of Calorific Power of the Elements Carbon to CO. 8100 Silicon to SiQs, ees 7595 Aluminum to Al,O 7270 Magnesium to MgO... 975 Phosphorus to P,O 892 Titanium to TiO $540 Calcium to CaO ; 740 Chromium to Cr,O 3000¢€7) Carbon to CO.... 2430 Sulphur to SO. ; 2164 Vanadium to VO 200007) Manganese to Mn,0, ‘ 198s [ron to Fe,O, 1612 Iron to FeO 1173 Cobalt to CoO : 1084 Nickel to NiO L051 Arsenic to As.O 1042 Tungsten to W.O 10007) Molybdenum to MoO (vt) Copper to CuO 9 One calorie equals about 4 British thermal! units, or exactly 3.967. Under the law which states that, in chemical reac- tions, those compounds are formed which generate in their formation the maximum quantity of heat, these elements (in the table) could be classified as to their behavior in iron metallurgy and most of them do con- form to that law, but there are exceptions, as will be noted later, particularly in the behavior of manganese and sulphur. In such exceptional cases the chemical affinities seem to be changed by high temperatures. With the exception of sulphur, al! those elements whose calorific powers are greater than that of iron are removable at some temperature from molten iron by oxidation, pro- vided that a supply of oxygen has access to them. On the other hand, those whose calorific powers are less than that of iron cannot, as a rule, be removed from iron by such means, Oxygen Oxygen is the great chemical agent employed in iron metallurgy. Though highly undesirable in iron and steel as an ingredient, it is indispensable both for producing heat by its combination with fuel in com- bustion, and as the great refining agent. For combus- tion, atmospheric oxygen is used, but for refining, oxygen may be obtained from air, or from oxides, either existing as such in the earth or formed by pre- vious metallurgical operations. Oxygen forms nearly one-half of the materials of the earth’s crust and the air contains about 1,150,000,000,000,000 tons of it, so the supply is, for human purposes, inexhaustible. This huge amount of atmospheric oxygen as well as the carbon with which it was once combined has been provided by the action of the sun, whose light, during the geo- logic ages since the earth became cool enough to sup- port vegetable life, enabled the coal-making plants to decompose the carbonic acid (CO:) which those ele- ments formed. The liberated oxygen was returned to the atmosphere while the carbon was stored in the earth and became coal. All operations in the metallurgy of iron in which the materials are fused are either (1) oxidizing, (2) deoxidizing (reducing) or (3) non-oxidizing (neutral), according to the use or control of oxygen in conducting ea ~~ oe 144 THE them. For example, the processes employed for convert- ing crude iron into the various steels are chiefly oxi- dizing; certain methods which comprise melting and mixing, as the crucible steel processes are neutral or slightly reducing, while the processes of obtaining crude metals, including iron, from their oxidized ores are reducing. Carbon Carbon to CO, 8100 calories: Carbon may be con- sidered as the master element in iron metallurgy. It ) W I nbu I gives } i i irg the { » It i icé t om S xid (3) } i isuall from \ i cas j n gray, ! ed isua ind per ent S S e } der steels WW I n steels are heat-treated in suitable ways I t I i i l jue ll hun \ It s other distinctive if minor effects. There are no other two elements which in their relations to each ithe | in any way those of carbon and iron. In the Blast Furnace in the blast furnace carbon n the solid state at a sufficiently high temperature in reduce from the charge materials in tion to the iron, some silicon, all of the phos- As the reducing agent phorus and a part of the manganese as well as some ther elements of less importance. To effect these re ductions the carbon must be oxidized to carbonic acid (CO.), as otherwise, if oxidized only to carbonic oxide (CQO), it would not have sufficient calorific power to reduce the non-ferrous elements mentioned. In the crucible steel process, conditions in the pot vary from neutral to reducing. After the charge is the oxygen it contained in the form of slag, rust and scale has been consumed by the carbon the form of carbonic oxide gas, and has attained a certain higher tempera- ture, the carbon in the metal attacks the silicia in the the pot, and reduces some silicon. Thus meitea and all “A = i charge wrought iron and charcoal (carbon) which contains no unoxidized silicon may, when properly melted and killed, contain 0.3 to 0.4 per cent of silicon or even more which has been reduced by the action de- scribe In the Open-Hearth Furnace In some variations of the acid open-hearth process, where conditions are somewhat like those in the cruci- ble process referred to, the same action takes place and as much as 0.12 per cent of silicon so reduced has been reported by Barba and Howe. This happens only when the metal has a comparatively high carbon con- tent, over 0.5 per cent, and is held in the furnace for an extended time, sometimes hours, at a temperature well above that of fusion, or say above 1550 deg. C., without any addition of ore, under a blanket of vis- cous, silicious slag which excludes the air. To accomplish these reductions of silicon in the steel processes, as in the blast furnace, the carbon con- sumed must manifestly be oxidized to CO, to give the necessary heat only to be largely and quickly reduced to CO by additional carbon taken up from the adjacent or supernatant metal, for the gases escaping from the bath are largely CO. However, some of the CO, formed escapes this later reduction to CO as shown by its presence, as reported by several investigators, in gases obtained from steel. Effect of Aluminum and Titanium on Carbon Apparently inconsistent with the action of carbon n reducing silicon in the steel processes as noted is the fact that the oxidation of carbon in iron is retarded by he presence the metal of silicon, as well as of alu- minum, titanium and perhaps magnesium and calcium. When any of these elements is present in a certain pro- portion for each and a certain moderate temperature is } i not exceeded, practically no oxidation of carbon takes I I t IRON AGE January 11, 1923 place. Thus if to iron containing carbon, that is, an unfinished steel bath which is fairly free from oxygen, there be added 0.3 per cent of silicon or 0.4 per cent of titanium, or 0.03 per cent of aluminum, the oxidation of carbon will be almost wholly arrested and, in com mon shop parlance, the metal will be “killed.” Any oxygen reaching the bath will be taken by the element or elements named which are present and not by th carbon. The explanation of this action evidently lies in th temperature. Carbon can reduce silicon and titaniun only at a somewhat elevated temperature, be it i the blast furnace, crucible or open-hearth furnace. At ordinary steel casting temperature these two elements will prevent the oxidation of carbon. With aluminum and probably with magnesium and calcium the case ji different, they not being reversible. At all tempera tures they protect carbon, but probably at no tempera ture used in steel metallurgy are they themselves re duced by carbon. Phosphorus, chromium, manganese and vanadiun might, because of their calorific powers, be assumed to be protectors of carbon in iron from oxidation, but they do not meet expectations in that regard. Man- ganese does indeed effect some slowing down of th rate of oxidation of carbon in a steel bath, causing the boil to be somewhat quieter, but in the basic open hearth process is itself reduced to some extent from it oxide by carbon at the expense and oxidation of th latter. This occurs to an important degree only when carbon is present in ample quantity and the content of manganese in the slag is high or, say, over 12 pe. cent of MnO. The manganese so reduced enters the iron and may continue to do so until there is 0.5 o1 0.6 per cent or even more in the metal. In the proces mentioned even when the manganese content is as high as 0.5 per cent there may be a fairly active “boil” which is the result of the oxidation of the carbon in the metal with reduction of some iron and manganese to the metallic form. Carbon protects iron from oxidation in the steel furnace at a somewhat elevated temperature when present in sufficient proportion and when the metal is well protected from atmospheric oxygen by a non-oxi- dizing slag. It will in time, in the acid process, if the temperature of the bath is something above the proper casting temperature, seize nearly or quite all of the oxygen contained in the iron of the bath. After that is accomplished but little CO gas is made and evolved and the bath is practically dead or killed. This deoxidation by carbon is likely to be accompanied by some reduction of silicon as already mentioned. Carbon seems to be the element which is most af- fected in its affinity for oxygen by changes in tempera- ture. The changes in such affinity at higher tempera- tures are dealt with further in the sections on silicon, phosphorus and manganese. (To be continued) Increased Employment in Cleveland Employment in Cleveland Jan. 1 was 26 per cent greater than at the start of 1922, according to the monthly report of the Cleveland Chamber of Commer¢ compiled from data supplied by 100 large employers of labor. There was a gain of 1.5 per cent in employment during December. In that month the number of em- ployees in the automobile industry increased 7.1 per cent over November. The iron, steel and metal work- ing industries showed an increase in employees from 12,697 to 43,190 in December over November. The re port states it is indicated that employment will con tinue to increase during January, as 31 companies an- nounced their intention to take on more men. The re port also indicates an increase in the pay of common labor. The average common labor rate in December was 38c. per hour. Employees and officers of Joseph T. Ryerson & Son held a banquet at Hotel LaSalle, Chicago, Dec. 28, to celebrate the 80th anniversary of the founding of the company. Br G, fF. rr< HE use of magnetic ore in the blast furnace is a ibject of increasing importance. The end of the leposits of lake ore is in sight, although not im- inless some new field is the will be an increasing factor the duction of the country. Enormous deposits of ind discovered, nagnetites in a ( ore have been practically untouched and con- re of sufficient richness and purity to prolong , ily our ore supply without extensive importa a oreign ores. Ja Magnetic ores can be divided into three genera be Fine unsintered, or raw ore; raw lumpy ore; ae e that has been sintered. [Typical analysis and est are given in the paper.] \ ne of these ores contain any appreciabl f manganese, it is necessary to add to the ore naterial containing this element. The ma 1 } isually a high manganese ore from the lake very high imported manganese ore; cinder from a furnace producing or, whnere iVallaDle, ne Fine Unsintered Ore successful use of fine magnetic ore in the blast depends on a number of factors, all of which e carefully determined for each individual case. ye However, there are a number of basic principles, whic! fi iefly discussed here. ‘ Correct Furnace Design designing a fur hat the reduction of this ore requires from 3 to ger than an equal amount of hematite. The ‘lume the must therefore be been found that approximately 4500 cu. volume above the tuyeres is required fot 100 tons of iron produced in 24 hr. ye e next thing to be considered is the design of the “i Unless every precaution is taken, the fine mag tend to work in a high zone of fusion in the thereby raising the ratio of direct to indirect which of course tends to high fuel and poor first thing to consider when ms ' above tuyeres It has results. The height of the bosh above the cen- of the tuyeres must, therefore, be kept as low sible, not over 12 ft. and preferably lower than In a new furnace, the bosh angle should be not in 78 deg., but if an old plant is being remodeled, should be kept low, even if necessa