The Iron Age 1921-12-22: Vol 108 Iss 25

_ THE IRON AGE New York, December 22, 1921 ESTABLISHED 1855 VOL. 108: Ne, 25 Fuels Used in Open-Hearth Practice The 1920 Ingot and Castings Production Analyzed—Producer Gas Chiefly Em- ployed for Ingots and Oil for Castings BY EDWIN F. CONE but to-day six different mediums are in use. Natural gas was available almost from the begin- yt in the history of the open-hearth steel industry, producer gas was practically the only fuel, ning in the Pittsburgh district. Fuel oil in more recent years has had widespread use and still later have been the developments in the employment of coke oven gas, tar and powdered coal. To ascertain the extent to which each of the fuels figures in open-hearth steel operations, THE IRON AGE sent a ques- tionnaire to the producers of open-hearth steel ingots and steel castings in the United States, using the 1920 production as a basis. The scope of the investigation is shown in the questions reproduced on this page and the results are discussed below. These are taken up in two sections: Fuels used in producing open-hearth ingots and fuels used in making open-hearth steel castings. Replies were received from 83 companies producing open-hearth ingots and from 71 open-hearth steel foundries. In some cases single returns represented several companies, as in the case of the Steel Corporation. Practice of Producers of Steel Ingots N the canvass of the steel ingot output of the country for 1920 less than six of the open-hearth producers failed to send replies. The data collected represent 94.41 per cent of the 1920 total ingot output or 29,931,- 485 gross tons out of 31,685,495 tons, the figures pub- lished by the American Iron and Steel Institute. A From the data collected, coke oven gas and tar in combination ranked next to producer gas in the ingot steel output last year, being credited with 13.72 per cent of the total. While coke oven gas alone represents only 5.84 per cent and tar only 4.85 per cent of the total, the two fuels ia their general use represent 24.41 table on another page shows the relative production of per cent. The growing importance of these fuels is steel ingots by the respective fuels emphasized when it is recalled that and the percentages, ten years ago they were a very Coke Oven Ges end Tar These four questions brought small factor and were more a out the information which is summarized in this article: While producer gas is credited with the leading rdéle, having been 1 used to produce 55.14 per cent of the total ingot output last year, . What was your open- hearth steel output (ingots or castings) in 1920? waste product than a useful one, so far, at least, as direct steel pro- duction was concerned. Of the companies reporting, 5 used in 1920 coke oven gas and tar, thus maintaining its old suprem- — 2. What proportion of acy, there has been in recent years a development of vital importance. It is the burning of coke oven gas and tar, preferably in combination. The use of these by-products as open-hearth fuels has grown ex- tensively in favor, but it is con- fined to the large steel producing companies which have their own this was made with: (a) Coke-oven gas and tar (b) Fuel oil (c) Producer gas (d) Powdered coal (e) Natural gas 3. How much was basic and how much acid open- hearth? 4. Brief comments on 2 used coke oven gas alone and 12 used tar only. Fuel Oil Next in importance to producer gas and coke oven gas and tar is fuel oil. Our investigation shows that of the total reported, 13.62 per cent or 4,075,351 tons of ingots were made in 1920 with oil as a by-product coke plants. The general practice of these companies is to burn the coke oven gas with the tar in certain proportions, usually in the ratio of their relative production from the ovens, but there are several cases where the coke oven gas or the tar are used separately. Where the two are used together the tar furnishes the luminosity, whether the proportion of the latter be large or small. The results of this practice have been most satisfactory, and it is Lkely to increase wherever circumstances warrant. the merits of fuels used. - fuel. It has been used much longer than coke oven gas or tar, but the latter is fast outstripping it in the case of the larger companies. In the steel casting in- dustry, however, it is much more extensively used in the latter than in the former. In the majority of cases, fuel oil has either been the original installation, due to the necessity of having a low sulphur fuel or because of the high cost of coal, or it has been substituted for producer gas for various operating and metallurgical reasons. 5 1589 es ae cine Se oe = 7 Foe Ne Se emp A ite hed a io ee re ee or i oie See inlet = a Sy ae ete a Te “ Aaa tated. %4, dg hss See Lees eee eee oa fe Sail? i ee ene — SOS TT ee Oo rr a i“ soo ae MBE me BE i Cae ae 1590 Natural gas has been and is an ideal fuel but its gradual diminution has caused several companies to turn to one of the other heat-producing agents. In 1920 natural gas was used in the production of 1,824,447 tons of ingots or 6.09 per cent of the total reported, ranking fourth on the list of the various fuels. Powdered Coal There have been several attempts to use powdered coal in open-hearth furnaces, not all of which have been successful. So far as our data throw light on this subject only 0.74 per cent of the total quantity of ingots reported upon was made with powdered coal. Comments on the Fuels The question asking for comments on the relative merits of the various fuels brought out a few interest- ing replies, some of which are abstracted as follows: Coke Oven Gas and Tar Most Efficient The vice-president and general superintendent of a large company in the Middle West states that he is “absolutely sold on the proposition that coke oven gas with tar is the best and most efficient fuel for the production of steel that there is, and that fuel oil ranks next. We do not have the blast furnace so can- not use the former fuel, but find that oil is the fuel for making quality steels, particularly alloy steel.” Another large Eastern steel producer states that his use of tar as an open- hearth fuel has been con- fined almost entirely to feerieeeene enter THE IRON Tabie of Steet Ingot and Castings Production of the United AGE December 22, 192] the heat has been melted down and low sulphur dis- tillate at the beginning. “In our particular case this proves a cheaper fuel. Producer gas has worked out with equal satisfaction as far as fuel properties are concerned.” A large steel and wire company in the Middle West testifies that the cost of fuel per ton, using fuel oil, has been lower than that of producer gas. The cause of this is the fact that the same furnaces (basic) pro- duce approximately 8 per cent more steel per hour on fuel oil than producer gas. . A large producer of basiceopen-hearth ingots for sheets and tubes states through its vice-president that he experiences a slight increase in the tonnage per turn when liquid fuel is used, whether fuel oil, tar or pitch. There is also obtained a lower sulphur content in the steel when pitch or tar is used. He also states that the company experiences a slight increase in repairs and rebuilding costs on furnaces using liquid fuel. The majority of the ingot output of this company has been made with producer gas. A large producer of basic ingots for forging steel, tin plate, black plate, etc., in the East, on the au- thority of its president, says that he would very much prefer to use fuel oil rather than producer gas were it not for the prohibitive cost of the former. “The quality of the steel is better and the output of the fur- ace is larger with fuel oil and there is no doubt but that the life of the furnace is longer with this fuel.” The company produced last year 90 per cent of its ingots with producer two small tilting acid fur- : Stales in 1920 According to Fuel Used gas. naces for making steel =: -—Ingots—, -—Castings~ : A company operating ; 2 Gross Per Gross Per : ° ° . : castings, although the : Fuels ame. Came Tons Cent: in Missouri, producing company has at various i Coke oven gas and tar 4,107,387 13.72 381 0.04 acid steel ingots, states : ‘ ? Coke oven gas 1,751,027 5.84 Er “anf 2 ‘ times used tar on one of i Tar ................) 15454/333 4.85 6,000 0.62: that fuel oil is cheap in ‘te TR. : = Fuel oil ...+. 4,075,351 13.62 634,862 67.10 : : , its 75-ton basic furnaces i producer gas '16,492'384 55.14 164:178 17.362 that territory and affords in its main open-hearth : Natural gas .. 1,824,447 6.09 131,182 13.85 — a nice, clean heat and is = Powdere ‘oa! a ast 226,556 0.74 9,779 03 2 plant. The general man- i" *” Se eel a) a ee ee ee ager of the company also : Totals .. 29,931,485 100.00 946,382 100.00 = plants. Another smal! ‘ = Total output in 1920..31,685,495 986,400 ‘ states that one of themain ¢ p.ncontage covered by company in Massachusetts advantages in the use of i replie: 94.41 95.98 asserts that coal is cheap- tar lies in the ability to ; a produce lower’ sulphur stee! than is possible with the average supply of pro- ducer gas coal which has been available during the last several years. Tar burns with a much sharper flame than producer gas and care must be exercised when this is used on a basic furnace in order to prevent melt- ing down the silica brick in the upper portion of the walls and roof resulting in more frequent trouble with the basic bottom. This bottom trouble does not occur, of course, where tar is used on acid furnaces. A large producer of tin plate and sheets states through its vice-president and general manager that fuel oil and natural gas are used with practically the same satisfactory results but that coke oven tar is not entirely acceptable from a metallurgical standpoint. Powdered coal is as yet apparently in its experimental stage. Fuel Oil Preferred The general manager of ‘a large sheet steel com- pany in the Middle West asserts that fuel oil is better adapted to that company’s conditions for melting pur- poses but that it is in a position to use only fuel oil and producer gas for melting purposes. Of the two, local conditions have demonstrated that the company can use fuel oil to much better advantage and with more economical results, taking into consideration all the different phases of production. : A large maker of tubes in the East states through its fuel engineer that it has found fuel oil very satis- factory, using heavy Mexican high sulphur oil after er but that fuel oil is easier to handle, while a large producer of basic open-hearth ingots, using fuel oil exclusively, asserts that this fuel is very satisfac- tory but that the company expects to use coke oven gas and tar in the near future. Merits of Natural Gas The assistant to the vice-president of a large com- pany, producing basic open-hearth ingots in the Middle West using producer gas, fuel oil and natural gas, states that natural gas as a fuel for steel making produces the best grade of steel specially from a sul- phur standpoint; that natural gas aud fuel oil are very much cleaner as a fuel, furnace repairs being much less than on other fuels and also that it means a much simpler furnace construction. “Due to scarcity it is practically impossible to obtain natural gas at this time for steel making. Fuel oil is very high in cost at any time, it being the consensus of opinion that it is more or less a gamble when purchasing it. In the use of fuel oil there is much less danger of tapping cold steel than there is with other fuel. In producer gas we find the cheapest fuel, but it does not produce a steel as low in sulphur as does either natural gas or fuel oil.” A large steel company in Pennsylvania which pro- duces basic steel ingots with producer gas and nat- ural gas, states through its president that “our prefer- ence is for natural gas but, owing to the scarcity and high price of this fuel, we are obliged to use producer gas, which is naturally cheaper than any other fuel for December 22, 1921 , since it is made from coal from our own mine.” A small company in Pennsylvania which made both acid and basic ingots, the former with fuel oil and the latter with producer gas, says that natural gas wads used as the auxiliary fuel both for the acid and basic furnaces. Its experience in the basic practice has shown that pro- ducer gas is the most economical fuel. In its acid practice more pro- duction can be had by the use of fuel oil, but natural gas has the ad- vantage of less oxidatign in melt- us, . . i Coke oven = gas ing and lower cost per ton produc- —i-..... tion. — oven gas.. cies cacekess Another company whose out- Fuel oil .... , es a Producer gas . put is about equally divided be- Natural gas. tween producer gas and natural Powdered coal .. gas as a fuel states that natural etal .i..... gas is faster but harder on the 7 araieation of steel in 1920.32 furnace. Percentage covered by the replies Powdered Coal Most Economical Discussing powdered coal, the president of a large company which produces acid and basic open-hearth ingots and which used last year pro- ducer gas and fuel oil, states that he has had no ex- perience with the use of coke oven gas and tar, but says powdered coal is the most economical as far as fuel is concerned, shortening the time of heats mate- THE IRON Table of the Total Output of Steel Ingots and Castings in 1920 as Made with Different Fuels Ingots and Castings napdenteaietialedeaaee AGE 1591 rially, but the coal has to be very low in sulphur and very low in ash. “Furnace repairs have been exces- sively high and the difficulty with the ash was so great that we are forced to abandon the use of that process. If means can be found to handle the ash successfully and economically, powdered coal would be an ideal fuel. In our experience oil has been the most satisfactory fuel, but its cost is so great as to make it impossible in producing steel for the competitive market. ANNUAL OTEDNSLO: /ORDRONEMNAG Ns | negae ENS os r¥¥9 Gross Per Tons Cent We have now arranged to discon- 1,107,768 13.59 tinue the use of fuel oil. The most vias, 6 Ses practical and most economical fue} - 4,710,213 15.20 has been producer gas. 1955629 6.28 Another company in the South, 236,385 = 0.71 which used last year both producer 30,877,867 100.00 gas and powdered coal, the latter © 671.895 to the extent of about 35 per cent ; of its output, states that in general 94.50 it prefers producer gas to pow- wwe? dered coal, and another company, which last year used coal tar, fuel oil and producer gas, states that the first two fuels were used early in 1920 to supplement pro- ducer gas because of a fuel shortage at that time. “In using tar about 46 gal. per ton of steel were necessary. In using fuel oil about 61 gal. per ton of steel, while for producer gas 700 lb. of coal per ton of ingots.” Practice of Producers of Steel Castings HE striking feature of the analysis of the replies f yoctoni the open-hearth steel foundry industry is the very extensive use of fuel oil. The data received were from companies which made about 96 per cent of the country’s total open-hearth steel castings and in- cluded all the largest producers. The table on another page shows that fuel oil was the medium used in pro- ducing 67.10 per cent of the total reported upon, as against only 13.62 per cent in the case of open-hearth steel ingots. This is a striking showing. Producer Gas Secondary to Fuel Oil Producer gas was instrumental in making 17.36 per cent of the total, ranking second to fuel oil and con- trasting with its leading position in the ingot indus- try. The predominance of fuel oil in the steel casting industry in 1920 is due largely to its rapid substitu- tion for coal. During the war the quality of the latter deteriorated and it was difficult to get. There was also the consideration that sulphur, particularly in acid open-hearth practice, could be kept down more ef- fectively with oil than with gas from coal. On the Pacific Coast fuel oil predominates as a fuel both for castings and ingots. Only seven of the 71 companies reporting used producer gas in 1920; some of these used fuel oil also. Natural Gas and Powdered Coal Next to fuel oil and producer gas, natural gas ac- counts for 13.85 per cent of the output of open-hearth castings. The large steel foundries around Pittsburgh account for a majority of this, but even this fuel is practically being supplanted by fuel oil or producer gas. Of the foundries reporting 14 used natural gas in 1920; of the 14, there were 9 using both natural gas and fuel oil. Powdered coal as a fuel for steel castings in open- hearth furnaces was used by but one company which produced 1.03 per cent of the total output reported on. This contrasts with 0.74 per cent in the ingot output. Tar Used by One Foundry Coke oven gas and tar played but a small réle last year in the steel casting output. This is natural be- cause the use of these fuels depends almost entirely on the proximity of a large by-product coke oven plant. Castings made with coke oven gas were insignificant, amounting to nearly 381 tons or 0.04 per cent of the total. As to tar, 0.62 per cent of the total was made by the use of this as a fuel. For 10 years or more a basic open-hearth steel foundry has been using tar as a fuel with eminent success. Relative Merits of the Fuels Some interesting testimony relative to the various fuels was given as follows by various companies pro- ducing open-hearth steel castings: The vice-president of a large acid open-hearth steel foundry in the East states that several years ago, when the price of fuel oil was approximately 2c. per gal., the gas producers were discontinued and the furnaces changed over for the use of oil, since which time oil has been used exclusively. The company has had no experience with coke oven gas and tar or powdered coal, but it is the belief that the former combination presents a very desirable and economical fuel where these materials are available as by-products. “The use of fuel oil has several advantages over producer gas, but the relative merits of the two depend upon the relative economies, which in turn depend upon relative prices of coal and fuel oil.” Another large acid open-hearth steel foundry in the Middle West gives the following testimony: The fuel oil which we use averages approximately 28 gravity and we have always found it very satisfactory. Our main supply comes from the Oklahoma fields. We have had comparatively little experience with any other fuel, but operated for a short period on producer gas, which we found very much less satisfactory than fuel oil The assistant to the general manager of a large acid open-hearth steel foundry in the East states that the use of fuel oil for melting makes possible a grade of steel which meets the specifications better than any other process of melting. A small acid open-hearth plant in the East, oper- ating a 5-ton furnace, states that in a plant of its size fuel oil is entirely satisfactory, as there is practically no outlay in producers or other equipment. A steel foundry in the Middle West operating basic co a Bhs a - { . ‘ ; = ‘ae ae 2s F vatlate | Re a eee a de M = Sgn 1592 : open-hearth furnaces on a small scale reports that it uses fuel oil exclusively for melting and finds it not eonly satisfactory but the most economical fuel that can be procured in that locality (Ohio). Good service on the brick work in the furnace is one result, together with general satisfaction in most other respects. Natural Gas Preferred A small steel foundry in the Pittsburgh district operating acid open-hearth furnaces reports that fuel oil is a very satisfactory melting medium for its pur- poses, but that natural gas is more satisfactory when available because easier to handle than fuel oil and not so hard on the furnaces. A small acid open-hearth steel casting plant in Pennsylvania, commenting on fuel oil, reports that the greatest difficulty encountered was the presence of moisture in the fuel oil in the cold weather. Another small plant in Wisconsin uses fuel oil from the Tulsa fields which has proven very satisfactory, and another acid plant in Pennsylvania characterizes fuel oil as much cleaner and as giving a longer run on the fur- nace. Still another plant in New York State, produc- ing acid open-hearth castings, states that the advan- tages of fuel oil for melting are low sulphur content and convenience, while a plant in California, producing both acid steel castings and basic ingots by the open- hearth process, states that fuel oil is much more eco- nomical than any other fuel obtainable in that terri- tory. ] : Natural Gas and Fuel Oil Compared The president of one of the largest steel foundries in Pennsylvania making a general run of acid open- hearth steel castings comments as follows: We find that natural gas is the most satisfactory fuel for us to use, but the supply is gradually failing and we are able to secure it in ample quantities only during the summer months and have to resort to fuel oil during a considerable part of the year. We find, however, that greater speed with- out sacrifice of quality can be obtained in melting with fuel oil than with natural gas One disadvantage in fuel oil as compared with natural gas is the tendency of the bath to take up sulphur in proportion to the amount in fuel oil The president of another large foundry in the same district, comparing natural gas and fuel oil, gives the following testimony: Natural gas is, in our opinion, the ideal fuel for me!ting steel when it can be obtained We realize that its exhaustion is approaching and we are investigating thoroughly the rela- tive merits and costs of substitutes, From present indications we wi'l probably use fuel oil when necessary on our open- hearth furnaces and install powdered coal in the remainder of our plant. A company operating basic open-hearth furnaces in California states that, if it had its choice between fuel oil and natural gas, it would prefer natural gas, although it is compelled to use fuel oil in that district. Producer Gas Cheaper than Oil A prominent Ohio company, which in 1920 made about 50 per cent of its output with fuel oil and the rest with producer gas, operating both basic and acid, the greater proportion being acid steel, comments as follows: In our opinion, with coal at $7.75 per ton and fuel oil at 11\%4c. per gal., we effected a saving of 54 per cent when we changed from fuel oil to producer gas. Of course, if the price of coal and fuel oil varied, it would alter the percentage of saving somewhat, but in no case is it possible to produc: steel castings as cheaply with fuel oil as with producer gas A small basic open-hearth steel foundry in Wiscon- sin reports entire satisfaction with producer gas as a fuel. The following interesting testimony by the presi- dent of a small acid open-hearth company in one of the Northern States is to the effect that “oil has been used exclusively as the preferred fuel, but powdered THE IRON AGE December 22, 1921 coal will come into use soon, since the company has a malleable department operating alongside of its stee| foundry.” Open-Hearth Output as a Whole Analyzing the industry as a whole, another table shows that the replies represented 94.50 per cent of the country’s total production of open-hearth stee!| ingots and castings combined. Producer gas predom- inates at 53.93 per cent, with fuel oil second at 15.20 per cent. Coke oven gas and tar, used together or separately, accounts for 23.83 per cent of the total. Powdered coal has not yet attained a prominent posi- tion at less than 0.75.per cent, while the use of natural gas is not a large proportion of the total at 6.28 per cent. The predominance of producer gas in the open- hearth steel ingot as contrasted with the greater use of fuel oil m the open-hearth steel casting industry is explained partly by the fact that producer gas has long been the leading fuel for ingots where the operation of furnaces is generally without intermission from week end to week end. In the steel casting industry fuel oil accommodates itself to the more intermittent periods of operation which are a large factor. There are also other reasons for its use as already brought out by the opinions of some of the steel makers. Comparing the two branches of the industry, this investigation shows that, of the two predominatiny fuels, 49 companies used fuel oil last year and 46 used producer gas, while 17 of these companies used bot fuels, whereas in the open-hearth foundry industry 65 companies used fuel oil and only seven used producer gas, four of them using both. Total companies re- porting, as stated before, were 83 ingot and 71 steel casting producers. It is evident that location plays an important part in the selection of the fuel used, whether for ingots or castings, though individual preferences also have their effect. There is no doubt, however, but that the comparatively recent introduction of coke oven gas or tar or both in American open-hearth plants is a de- velopment of far reaching importance, primarily be- cause of the reductions in costs which are a conse- quence. It involves the use of a by-product which takes the place of a purchased fuel and it also means one more elimination of waste. Large companies hav- ing their own coke oven plant possess therefore a marked advantage. Carnegie Steel Co. Buys Land The Carnegie Steel Co. was the successful bidder for 108 acres on Neville Island, in the Ohio River near Pittsburgh, at an auction sale by the Government in Pittsburgh, Dec. 16. This land was taken over by the Government during the war as a site for a huge ordnance plant which was to have been erected and operated by the United States Steel Corporation. Sud- den termination of the war before construction had far progressed led to its abandonment. The property adjoins that on which is located a blast furnace built and owned by the American Steel & Wire Co., but which for some time has been operated by the Carnegie Steel Co. What the latter proposes to do with the land just purchased has not been definitely decided, but there are intimations that it contemplates ultimately to consolidate several] rolling mill plants in the Pitts- burgh city limit on the Neville Island site. The Fuller & Johnson Mfg. Co., Madison, Wis., maker of farm gas engines and power tools, has in- creased its working schedule from three days to six days a week to accomodate an improved demand for its products. It is employing between 150 and 175 workmen and expects to make further additions to the force immediately after Jan. 1 to fill orders for spring delivery. December 22, 1921 SILICA BRICK Refractories Manufacturers’ Association Issues New Charts THe Iron AGE of July 7, last, published a chart giving production, shipments, stocks and unfilled orders of silica brick covering a period from Jan. 1, 1918, to May 31, 1921. These figures were compiled from reports from all manufacturers by the Refractories Manufacturers’ Association. It developed that in the compilation of the figures some errors crept in, notably regarding production, which tended to invalidate the picture of the industry as set forth in the chart. The errors were the result of giving the gross production without regard to kiln losses and breakage and oc- curred at a time when a good many manufacturers were engaged in manufacturing by-product oven (30-————- I \ + $4 4 vi6) > } $444 ; +i} ; o ; 5S re : > - we IN =A zz 5 y 5 "i . 19}9 =< 1920------ >< 1921 > Chart “A” Shows the Divergence of Production and Ship- ments. Where production exceeds shipments, the degrees of divergence are shown above the zero line and vice versa Chart “B" shows the divergence of production and new orders. Where production exceeds new orders. the degrees of divergence are shown above the zero line and vice versa. Chart “C” shows the divergence of shipments and new orders. Where shipments exceed new orders, the degrees of divergence are shown above the zero line and vice versa Chart “D” shows the divergence of stock and unfilled orders Where stock exceeds unfilled orders, the degrees of divergence are shown above the zero line and vice versa shapes, which are classified as specials, and the losses ran up as high as 331/3 per cent. Production properly is the net number of good brick, and to the end that the chart should not be misleading the Refractories Manufacturers’ Association has re- vised its figures and prepared a new chart, which is published herewith. This chart differs from the for- mer one in that it embraces merely the reports of the members of the Refractories Manufacturers’ Associa- tion. Since a large percentage of the silica brick ca- pacity is embraced in the association, however, it pro- vides a clear picture of the industry and moreover is brought down to Sept. 30, last. The association also THE IRON AGE F 1593 has prepared a chart running from Jan. 1, 1919, to Sept. 30, 1921, showing the degrees of divergence in production and shipments of silica brick, in production and new orders, shipments and new orders and stocks and unfilled orders. This chart also is based upon re- ports exclusively of members of the association. More Steel Workers at Higher Wages Iron and steel plants, according to figures of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, show for November a gain of 5152 employees over October in 119 establishments. This gain of 4.3 per cent is accompanied by a gain of y as 4 4 TMA HH p54 — pan —-4 + eat & 220 © 200} Ce a —s = 180 fant th as & 160 ‘& 140 £ Y 190 BENE : > + +>->- 4 Ss soll 3 A0 HoH CO RAH adel > aot head it Weworbers HEE EEE £ SCT AMINUS CANCELLATIONS wo $. | = SoCo 6.2 per cent in the amount of the payroll, and by an advance from $41.89 to $42.63, or 1.8 per cent, in the average pay envelope. Automobile building, on the other hand, has fallen off, there being a drop of 3546 men, or 3.5 per cent, and a drop of 8.5 per cent in the payroll. This means that the average pay envelope has shrunk 5.1 per cent. There has been a shrinkage, also, in the average envelopes ot the men engaged in build- ing and repairing railroad cars, amounting to 0.7 per cent; but the number of men at this work has increased 5.9 per cent. In the table, comparison will be found not only between October and November for these three branches of industry, but also between November of this year and November of 1920. Number of Estab- lishments Half Month Payroll Average Pay Envelope Number of Men Period Tron and Steel November, 1920. 118 185,547 $14,720,283 $79.33 November, 1921. 119 123,920 5,282,658 42.63 October, 1921.... 119 118,768 4,974,236 $1.89 Automobiles November, 1920. 53 114,027 3,295,077* 28.90 November, 1921. 52 96,838 2,702,234° 27.91 October, 1921.... 52 100,384 2,953,210° 29.42 Car Building and Repairing November, 1920 62 71.960 5,232 200 72.71 November, 1921. 63 53,964 3,251,901 60.26 October, 1921.... 63 50,943 3,091,352 60.68 * Weekly , Se gets i aera ym eo Ee eos = Rea OS ie ee ee ae, tat eiteeaings: osteo are aout n “ arate : 1 phi lori Tne eb re ae aE eT ee nee “I ai Ce tee ee es 1594 THE IRON AGE PAST PRESIDENTS’ NIGHT New England Foundrymen’s Association Has Unusual Program The December meeting of the New England Foun- drymen’s Association, at the Exchange Club, Boston, Wednesday evening, Dec. 14, this year, took the form of a past presidents’ night. Last year the association rounded out a quarter century’s existence, and at that time plans were made to entertain in 1921 the past ex- ecutives. More than 100 attended the dinner, at which C. S. Lovell, president, presided. Thirteen past presidents attended. Following 1s a list of these, the companies which they represented at the time they served as presidents of the associa- tion, and the years they served: George H. Gibby, Condor Iron Foundry, 1895-1898; Henry A. Carpenter, A. Carpenter & Sons Foundry Co., 1902-1903; B. M. Shaw, Walker-Pratt Mfg. Co., 1904; Henry F. Arnold, American Tool & Machine Co., 1908; William A. Viall, Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., 1909; H. E. Wetherbee, James Hunter Machine Co., 1911; Charles L. Newcomb, Deane Steam Pump Co., 1912; Robert C. Bird, Broad- way Iron Foundry, 1913; Charles L. Nutter, Old Colony Foundry Co., 1914; T. R. Scott, Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., 1917; George P. Aborn, Blake & Knowles Steam Pump Works, 1918; Robert L. Newcomb, Deane Steam Pump Works, 1919, and A. B. Root, Jr., Hunt-Spiller Mfg. Corp., 1920. Letters of regret were received from John Magee, Magee Furnace Co., 1905; Walter B. Snow, B. F. Sturtevant Co., 1906; William H. Bense, Kinsley Iron & Machine Co., 1907, and A. F. Corbin, Union Mfg. Co., 1915. Fred F. Stockwell, Barbour- Stockwell Co., Cambridge, Mass., who has been secre- tary of the association since its formation, sat at the table with the past presidents. First Organized to Combat Labor Troubles George H. Gibby, the first president, explained how the association happened to be formed. In 1895 the iron molders’ union made demands on Boston foundries for $2.50 per day, the abolition of piece work, and the limiting of apprentices to one to each eight molders. At that time the molders received $2 to $2.25 a day. Owners of nine foundries met by appointment to con- sider the demands of the union. After the trouble was adjusted these same nine foundry owners organized the association. Charles L. Newcomb acted as spokesman for the past presidents in expressing their appreciation of the courtesy and honor shown by the association. He introduced each past executive, who addressed the mein- bers. He also paid tribute to Mr. Stockwell, whom he described as the backbone and mainstay of the associa- tion, while the members rose in a body. Dr. Richard Moldenke, a guest of the evening, who in the past has addressed the association members many times, was introduced “to the younger members present.” In a short business session held immediately after dinner, A. B. Root, Jr., Boston, A. F. Corbin, New Britain, Conn., and William A. Viall, Providence, R. I., were appointed a committee by the chair to make nom- inations for officers to be balloted on at the annual meeting in January. Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., engineer and chemist, was made a member of the association. Richard H. Rice, works manager General Electric Co., Lynn, Mass., was the chief speaker of the evening. He spoke on the present-day need of establishing and maintaining mutual confidence between employees and management and on what the General Electric Co. has done to meet these conditions. Mr. Rice first pointed out the progress made by industry in perfecting products the past 100 years or more, and the lack of progress in the relationship be- tween management and employee during the same pe- riod. He stated that, if management had given the same thought and effort to the welfare of employees during that period as to development of products, in- dustry would be better off to-day. He then and sub- sequently went on record as in favor of unions, bring- ing out the point that unions should exist in shops December 22, 192) and plants where management does not give proper consideration and fair play to the employee. He main- tained workmen are fair when they have the same facts to reason on that management has, and he out- lined the method adopted by the General Electric (Co. in dealing with the men and their troubles. This method has sufficient flexibility to be applicable, in modified form, to factories having as few as 150 employees. Mr. Rice does not advocate the General Electri: Co.’s plan as something to beat the unions, but he does as something which gives the ambitious workman a chance. Lead Too Pure for Cathedral Roofing There is such a thing as too pure lead for roofing purposes. The ancient Gothic cathedrals of Europ were topped with this gray metal that blended wel) with the stone work and the style of architecture. Lead was specified for the roof of the Episcopal cathedra! of Washington, which is now being built, but after it had been applied for some time, it was found that sheet lead on the steep roof slopes had a tendency to flow downward of its own weight and the heat of the sun. The nail holes enlarged and allowed the meta! to slip partially off. Metallurgists of the Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce were called upon and they found that the grade of commercial lead used was 99.9 per cent pure, far too pure for satisfac- tory roofing. They recommended the use of what is technically called hard lead, which contains approxi- mately 6 per cent of antimony. Lead roofs on Euro- pean cathedrals have lasted for 300 to 500 years, and the metallurgists are of the opinion that lead as manu- factured in those days had impurities sufficient to harden it for roofing use. Extensive School Building Figures made public by the President’s Conference on Unemployment show that an enormous amount of school construction is under way and that a large addi- tional amount has been authorized as one of the means to give immediate relief to the nation’s unemployed. According to the National Education Association, new school buildings are going up, or contracts about to be let, to the amount of $20,553,250, will provide much needed seating capacity. Commenting upon these figures, Col. Arthur Woods, chairman of the Committee on Civic and Emergency Measures, said: “Hundreds of new school buildings are needed in every State in the Union. Hundreds of thou- sands of school children in the leading cities are in school only half time for want of seating space. Other hundreds of thousands are seated in buildings whose light and sanitation are a menace to health. Millions are in buildings ill suited to the purpose and require- ments of educations as it is now conceived and organ- ized. Many such buildings added to the larger building programs of the cities can be made to create a great tide of employment which must certainly mean better times for the nation and its people.” New Ore Distribution Map The Lake Superior Iron Ore Association, Kirby Building, Cleveland, has issued a map showing the distribution of Lake Superior iron ores and Eastern and foreign ores during 1920 with the location of the consuming furnaces. A similar map was issued in 1915 but that covered only the Lake Superior ores. A. L. DeLeeuw, New York, consulting engineer, spoke on “Notions in Machine Shops That Should Be Scrapped” before a joint meeting last week of the machine shop section Providence Engineering Society, and the Rhode Island section American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in Providence. The talk was based on experiences in the shops of the Singer Sewing Machine Co., the Cincinnati Milling Machine Co. and other manufacturing plants. ee eo x, eS a ie a s & u re aM = ee 4 as Cs 7 ae) i ae “ ed oe saree Adjustable Speed With Motor Driven Mills Two Satisfactory Systems Described, with Comments on Their Relative Characteristics and the Particular Work for Which Each Is Most Adaptable—Discussion rolled at the maximum speed possible without adversely affecting the quality of the product. The speed at which the steel will enter the rolls is affected by the diameter of the rolls, the weight and cross-section of the piece, and the extent to which the rolls are ragged. For the same pair of rolls, the smaller the section and the lighter the piece, the higher the speed at which the rolls will grip it. Once the piece has entered, the maximum speed at which it can be rolled is determined by its section and by the draft. It is essential with large drafts, especially for cast in- gots, that the speed be low, to allow time for the steel to flow. The speed is also affected by the type of mill, F) niet a considerations demand that steel be ' >) . — eee Fig. 1—Kraemer System of Control the method of handling the steel and the weight of the piece. In rolling certain shapes, the amount of waste is greatly affected by the speed. If the speed is too high, the steel will not flow into the corners, and if it is too low it will flow out between the rolls, producing a “fin” which cannot be rolled in by subsequent passes. In- creasing the speed for smaller sections not only in- creases the production, but decreases the power con- sumed per ton rolled, because of the higher average tem- perature maintained during rolling. Obviously, the best speed is frequently a compro- mise between opposing factors, and differs with almost every section, making it advantageous, and often neces- sary, to provide adjustable-speed control for mills roll- ing a variety of shapes. While the installation of iarge mills, making a comparatively small range of sections, has tended to reduce the advantages of adjustable-speed operation, the ever increasing roll speeds have had the opposite effect, and we find a constantly increasing de- mand for equipments capable of being operated over a considerable range in speed. Not only this, but the speed requirements become more and more exacting as to refinement of control. The difficulties encountered by the electrical en- gineer in obtaining an adjustable-speed motor are not always appreciated by the man familiar with the char- acteristics of the steam-engine. The latter is natural- ly a variable-speed machine, to which special control devices must be applied to give it constant or adjusta- ble-speed characteristics, while electric motors of the type applicable to steel mill main rolls are essentially constant-speed machines. The following definitions are given by the Standards Committee of the American In- stitute of Electrical Engineers: Adjustable-speed motors are those in which the speed can *Power and Mining Engineering Department, General Electric Co.. Schenectady, N. Y. This is an abstract of the paper, which was read before the Engineers’ Society of Western Pennsylvania. BY K. A. PAULY* a be varied gradually over a considerable range, but when once adjusted, remain practically unaffected by the load. Varying-speed motors are those in which the speed varies with the load, ordinarily decreasing when the load increases Multi-speed motors are those which can be operated at any one of several distinct speeds (these being practically independent of the load), but which cannot b operated at intermediate speeds Adjustable-speed motors should embody all the char- acteristics, strength, rigidity, reliability, safety and tin, ty L-Induction 4. Generator Fig. 2—Single Range Scherbius System accessibility of the constant-speed induction motor, which have been such large factors in the success which has attended the application of these motors to rolling mills. When adjusted for any speed throughout the range of control, the speed should be only slightly af- fected by wide variations in load. The motor should be capable of carrying high overloads, 125 to 150 per cent, throughout the full speed range. Its efficiency should be highest over the range of speeds required for the greater part of the produc- tion. If any of the alternating-current types is used, the power-factor should be high. Its cost must not be excessive. At the time when motors were first applied to main rolls there were available four methods of obtaining adjustable-speed control, all of which had been thor- oughly tried out in other fields: Adjustable-speed control with direct-current motor, in which the speed of either a shunt- or compound-wound machine, taking power from a constant potential source, is changed by varying the strength of its field. Adjustable-speed operation by the so-called Ward-Leonard system of control, in which the speed of a shunt- or com- pound-wound, direct-current motor is varied by varying the voltage impressed on its armature, at the same time main- taining its field constant. Multi-speed contro! with changeable pole motors, in which are used induction motors having two or more independent windings designed for different synchronous speeds, or with a single winding so arranged that the number of poles can be changed at will through switches external to the machine Multi-speed control with induction motors operating in concatenation. As applied to main rolls, concatenated motors consist of two mechanically connected single-speed or multi- speed induction motors, so connected electrically that the mill may be driven at the synchronous speed of either, or at a speed corresponding to the Synchronous speed of a motor having a number of poles equal to the sum of the poles of both machines. From the standpoint of speed control alone, the ad- justable speed direct-current motors, with motor field or with Ward-Leonard control, meet steel mill require- ments, but they are usually expensive and low in ef- 1595 i ae + Serene made aie aA aus SSE koa co St engage Bo ae CTC TO Fk el era RAT GME!.. - 5 kaas en ee =, 235 eee a we eo or wet | ; 1596 THE IRON AGE ficiency, as they require a motor generator or syn- chronous converter to transform the alternating cur- rent of the general supply system to direct current. The loss in power due to the conversion varies from From Power Station Main Induction| | | 0 acti dose > c . D. Excite aa FI Mad oo \| // a Pah ey | | | | 44") j eo. | } | Reg. Motor \} : 1 | TH lis | Induction ||| | | | LY Generator 1 | 1} | L | Breall ‘Controller — Fig. 3—Double Range Scherbius System 10 to 20 per cent, depending upon the size and type of converter and the nature of the rolling load cycle. While direct-current motors can be, and have been, so designed as to operate entirely successfully when driving main rolls, the commutation problem is a dif- ficult one, and the vibration and dirt which are always present aggravate the sparking at the high overloads, and make it difficult for the commutator to take on a polish. Qn the other hand, the use of.the single-speed induction-motor under the most adverse conditions of load and dirt has demonstrated its superiority as a main roll drive. It was not strange, therefore, that mill men a few years ago made every effort to adapt their mills to in- duction-motor speed characteristics. Where the range of sections was such as to require different speeds, two or three compromise speeds were chosen and multi- speed motors purchased. But, at best, these motors are inflexible; their use almost always entails a sacri- fice and, especially with 25-cycle power, it is difficult to obtain speeds which are sufficiently near those de- sired. Appreciation of these facts led many of the leading engineers, throughout Europe as well as in America, to devote considerable time and expense to studying the problem of making an alternating-current motor which would embody the mechanical characteristics of the induction-motor, the speed characteristics of the direct- current, adjustable-speed motor, and an efficiency which would approach that of the multi-speed induction-motor Many systems were suggested and a few actually found their way into steel plants, although by far the greater number have passed into history with only a patent of- fice record. Of the systems developed, two embody to a greater or less degree the desirable characteristics of an ad- justable-speed mill motor. These are commonly known as the Kraemer, or synchronous converter, system, and the Scherbius system. In both of these systems the slip energy of the induction-motor, which is ordinarily thrown away as heat in the rheostat, is returned either as electrical energy to the general power supply sys- tem, or converted to mechanical power through a motor mounted on the same shaft with the main induction- motor. These two systems are shown diagrammatically The Kraemer system requires one additional ma- chine over the corresponding Scherbius equipment. The effect of this unit on the price and efficiency makes it imperative to adopt the drive with the smaller num- ber of parts, and we find that, with a single exception, installations of this system are of the type having the regulating machine mounted on the main motor shaft. Developing direct-current motors mounted on the main roll shafts for conserving slip energy has materially reduced the costs of the expensive element of this sys- tem. Obviously, the capacity of the regulating equip- December 22, 1921 ment in either system is determined by the amount of power transmitted through it; that is, by the capacity of the main roll motor and its range of control. How- ever, in addition to this, its design is affected by the maximum rotor voltage and frequency. The tendency of the synchronous converter to fal! out of step, at low frequencies, makes the main rol] motor with the Kraemer system unstable when carry- ing heavy overloads near synchronism. A rolling load, with its rapid fluctuations over wide ranges, aggra- vates this tendency toward instability. The addition of a flywheel, because it decreases the rates of chang< in the roll motor speeds and frequently reduces the slip, tends to stabilize the roll motors around syn- chronism. , An example will serve to illustrate this. The curve in Fig. 4 shows the effect of the weight of the fiy- wheel on the time torque curves of a 1200-hp. motor driving a mill. This torque curve is typical of many of those to which adjustable-speed motors are subjected, and is less severe than one for a single-stand mill, in which the load is either all on or all off. The full line curve is that for the motor without flywheel having WR’*= (901,700 lb.-ft.)*; the dot dash curve corresponds 90 Te ee ee | eee s+ ft 80}—+- 5+ + } 10 | . © 65}—- § =o }—_}__ G17 3 286 6S CN ee eee Seconds Fig. 4—-Typical Rolling Mill Load Cycle to a flywheel effect of WR*=(1,726,500 lb.-ft.)*; the dotted curve corresponds to a flywheel effect of WR (4,500,000 1b.-ft.)°. Referring to the full line curve. the slip at point A is 6.5 per cent, which corresponds to a rotor frequency of 1.65 cycles. The slip at point B is approximately 11.6 per cent, and the corresponding se