The Iron Age 1921-08-04: Vol 108 Iss 5

THE IRON AGE New York, August 4, 1921 VOL. 108: No. 5 ESTABLISHED 1855 Continuous Stores Keeping Cuts Investment System of Checks and Almost Automatic Control of Ordering Materials Economizes in Space Required and in Amount Carried pair parts carried in the storehouse, the Erie Forge & Steel Co., Erie, Pa., has developed a system of keeping track of stores under which the amount of tem carried in stock is the smallest amount which | be purchased advantageously at one time, unless irger amount is required because of rapid use. The I \N an effort to minimize the amount of stores and re- et o fully marked, so that new as weil as old employees may readily find the material wanted, with the least possible delay. Each bin has a board within it, which effectually and physically separates one portion of its contents from another. This board gives a warning that, when it is reached in the gradual issuing of stores, it is time Spee V i TAG No FRIE FORGy AND ST pe} ~ /3 | CO. | ! STORES verge } om ANTTTy © 4 Bin No | Diviston oF Back . JSS ; Let Actas - a & F- 8 a hhh Arran Powill a seositetlaie j Section ARTICLE ———————— ji Gatche | package Order Potat These Six Cards or Forms thing has been worked down to a basis which t be described as almost scientific, with a definite ent of each size and kind of material as the t to be carried on hand, and a rigid determina- ' the point in the consumption of that material ‘ new order should be put in, so that delivery made before the remaining balance of the old consumed. ne stores building, which, despite this arrange- arries some $150,000 worth of material at all the bins for different materials are all care- Are 4 ‘ARGE To ORDER ISSUE TOTAL Whice . Ni nae wg PESCRIPTiON ibe & STORE FLOOR A’S OESCRIPTION Described in the Text to order a new stock if they are to be on hand when needed. As soon as this point is reached, the store- room clerk makes out a requisition upon the office to order as promptly as possible a certain specific amount of the material. Taking the example shown by the cards herewith illustrated, it will be noted that the so-called “order point” of Gold Dust washing powder is fixed at 20 packages, it having been found by experience that 20 packages will last, in the ordinary run of events, just about the length of time required to get the order 253 254 THE IRON AGE through and the new supply into the bin. This time is shown also, on the card, to. be about three weeks. The amount ordered each time is 48 packages, or four cases of 12 packages each. The yellow card, Fig. 2, containing this information, is tacked on the bin where this particular material is kept. To the new material, when received, a manila tag, Fig. 3, is attached. As the material is unpacked and | | } iH Hit} hey BRICK YARD j j AK & & / ¢ A % / Reedimael OIL ‘TANHS BUNK HOUSE NO4 F rT 1 PUMP HOUSE . wooo. YOK 'UNK HOUSE NO. 3 BUNy WOUise —, . A) ve2 Lo BUN MACHINE SHOP \ 442 1 1} if TANHS 4000006A 400000 GAL TOILET AND TOOL orl PUMP August 4, 1921 certain items, and does not receive it, he immediately goes to the storeroom to learn why. In this way the storeroom clerk is not permitted to overlook sending jn his requisition for materials as the several bins become depleted. Perhaps the best thing that can be said about the system as a whole is that it works, and that the eom. pany is much pleased with the way it works. PRP WYRE. 2 = _ 5 —— ——_ = aes Ss a oeenies RACK SCALE = AS WELL : ; ZA SARO MASTER E z vy rT LOCOMOTIVE AND CRANE gf Tf SARAGE | ne on | Sf. ai y OFFICE; j é7TT ff ) Ro, * Va BOILER Wy Ay PLANT ve \RESTAURAN HOSPITAL af oa GAS WELLe : g ~aa I ae fr - SS) z : \ L E AR ” y ! ! 100 200 300 400 eam (ee ee General Layout of the Plant, Which Was Described on page 1595, Tur IRON AGE, June 16 placed in its proper bin, this tag is hung on a hook on the side of the bin, until all of the material covered by the shipment has been issued, when it is stamped to that effect, and sent to the balance clerk in the stores office. In order that stores may be used up in the order in which they are received, it is customary to remove the small balance of the old material and place this on top of the new, when the new is placed in its bin. Thus no material is allowed to lie in the bin, month after month, without being put into service in its regular rotation. This is important in connection with certain materials which might spoil if left too long. The white card, Fig. 4, kept by the balance clerk in the stores office, is used as a perpetual inventory of material on hand. All deliveries of materials are en- tered on one of these cards, and all withdrawals of material also are entered, so that the difference be- tween the two will always represent, barring error, the amount actually on hand. This is subject to check at necessary intervals, but is found so generally re- liable in service that it is considered correct at all times. A red card, Fig. 5, is attached to the label on the bin as soon as a requisition is made out for the placing of a new order. This is done primarily as a guide to the clerk in the stores building, so that the order will not be duplicated through lack of his remembering that it has already been placed. The yellow slip, Fig. 6, and its pink duplicate, serve as requisitions for drawing out materials from stores. This is posted on the balance card when used, and also on the cost records. Extensions of the amount are made by the cost department, and the proper amount charged to the department receiving the material. By means of this system, both the balance clerk and the storeroom clerk have a ready check upon the condition of the stores in each particular. If the bal- ance clerk finds that an order should come through for Pump with Ring-Oiled Packing Gland Centrifugal and other rotary types of pumps which will incorporate a packing gland designed with the ring oiling feature will be manufactured by the Arrow Pump Co., Buhl Build- ing, Detroit. It is claimed that the ring oiling feature elimi- nates leaky glands and scored shafts, increasing the life of the pump by efficient lubri- cation at the glands. The _ illustra- shows one exam- ple of this con- struction. The Packing Gland Incorporating the Ring packing gland is Oiling Principle. The gland is also arranged in com- used as a eer long bination with an adjustment nut and oil reservoir to permit the use of the ring oiling principle of lubrication. A constant flow of oil is sup- plied to the gland making it practical to use it also as a bearing, the shaft being supported close up to the load, eliminating overhang and the necessity of out- board bearing. Deflection of the shaft is said to be prevented and the seal of the packing undisturbed. With deflections and vibration of the shaft prevented the metallic packing affords all the resiliency necessary to seal without scoring the shaft. This method of lubrication is designed to keep 4 film of oil between the packing and the rotating sha‘t, and in the bearing. The packing is not subject to the wear it would otherwise have, and is calculated to hold its seal for long periods without adjustment. gust 4, 1921 British Steel Exports Very Low in June— Imports Relatively Larger tish steel exports in June, this year, excluding re and including scrap, were only 66,301 gross ~ s; compared with 101,202 tons in May, 161,508 eS n April and 183,373 tons per month for the first er, The June exports last year were 287,655 tons. erage per month in 1920 was 274,881 tons per while in 1913 it was 420,757 tons per month. 119 rate was 188,519 tons per month. The June is therefore much less than even the 1919 month- rage and smaller than any month in the war Imports in June were 88,083 tons, which con- with 89,348 tons in May, 111,536 tons in April, th 186,040 tons per month in the first quarter. 1915 imports were 195,264 tons per month and in ey were 128,685 tons per month. ns Exports Imports first quarter, 1921 . 183,373 186,040 161,508 111,536 101.202 89.348 : cn 66,301 S8,083 second quarter, 1921 109,670 96,320 AOED so eeea ss ‘ 188,519 0.801 1920 . ; 274,881 128.685 SUER i sce ss cea $20,757 195,264 trend of some of the prncipal exports is shown owing data in gross tons: Average per Month June June 1913 1920 1920 1921 78.771 38,505 43.358 10,26 11,676 11,213 8,948 1,173 11,162 16,571 14,882 1,336 ets .. 63,506 34,244 $5,826 4,471 20,921 30,322 94,292 2,115 $1,208 29,418 32.756 8,801 »,679 3,026 3,167 419 11.014 684 imports in May were only 34,209 tons, as with 541,742 tons per month in 1920. In 0, they were 675,179 tons. The total for the ionths was 1,284,166 tons, as compared with tons in the first six months in 1920. nese ore imports were, 8334 .tons in June 717 tons per month in 1920 and 50,098 tons Baily Electric Resistance Furnace for Heating THE IRON AGE 255 per month in 1913. The total to July 1 this year was 142,038 tons against 179,066 tons for the same six months last year. Resistance Type of Electric Furnace In- stalled for Heating Sheets In the manufacture of automobile body and fender stampings it is of the highest importance that the heat- ing operations be conducted with as little scaling as possible, for any pitting due to this action requires con- siderable additional labor in getting the defects sand- blasted to sufficient extent to get a good*finish. The Mullins Body Corporation, Salem, Ohio, with this in mind, recently installed in its new plant a Baily electric furnace specially designed for this work. Since : | i Sheets Previous to Stamping and Forming a large part of the pressing or drawing to shape is performed cold and only one or two hot runs are re- quired for perhaps six or seven cold operations on the press, it was desirable to build a furnace of the portable type which could be handled by a crane and taken from place to place so that there would be no idle furnaces while the material was receiving its cold runs. This necessitated a furnace with four eye bar connections at the top, one at each corner, for hooking on the crane chains; and also that the transformer and control equip- ment be located on the top of the furnace, as shown. The furnace is rated at 100 k.w. in electrical ca- pacity, and has a hearth 3 ft. 4 in. wide by 6 ft. 5 in. long with a door opening 3 ft. 4 in. wide by 2 ft. 2 in. high. It has a capacity for heating 750 lb. of material to 1800 deg. Fahr. per hr. In plants where a crane is not available for moving the furnace, the equipment is designed for mounting on a car which may be moved at will on a truck ruwning parallel to the presses. One of the features of this equipment is the remark- able uniformity of temperature obtained on the sheets, a Condition which it is claimed is not possible to attain in fuel-fired equipment where the doors must be opened frequently. Scaling is also reduced to an almost neg- ligible item, making very much smoother sheets than is possible in fuel-fired practice. wiliteniweas ee ar Sipe ya te page A RT ~~ . ew Xe ng Features of German Machine Tool Plant Color of Buildings Considered—Prevailing Winds Aid in Reducing Dust and Noise—Wel- fare of Apprentices and Workmen Emphasized MACHINE tool plant in which important con- A sideration was given to the color of the outside as well as the inside of the buildings, to the pre- vailing winds as a factor affecting the reduction of dust and noise, and to the welfare of apprentices and workmen, was built for the Fritz Werner Co., Marien- felde near Berlin, Germany. The plant was constructed use the turntable at the same time with the Allowance was made for ample clear space between the buildings, partly to secure yard storage and part]; to enhance the lighting of the buildings. The main building is U shaped. The wings are about 328 ft. long, connected by the office building 308 ft. long. Be- tween the wings there is a 230 x 492 ft. one story build- ing, where the heavy machinery is placed. The wings are used as shops for work for which heavy machinery is not required. In the basement of the executive build- ing are located the wash and locker rooms for the workmen. Above this are the shop offices, the floors of which are elevated 5 ft. above the shop floor for supervision. A hallway 10 ft. in width, outside of the of- fices, serves as a connecting link between the offices and shops. The sales department is located on the upper floor and on the floor beneath the engineering department. The school for apprentices is located on t third floor. The main one-story shop consists of a 46-ft. center bay, equipped with 10-ton elec- tric cranes, four 23-ft. bays on the east side, equipped with special devices for hand- ling the transmission parts of the machine tools, and four 23-ft. bays in the west side, equipped with 3-ton electric cranes for as- sembling. The testing department is also located in this building. Machine tools are Pattern Storage Building, Connected with Engineering Department by an tested for production and operating Spe ed Archway to Permit Study of Patterns on Hand under war time exigency, but appears to have been able to meet fully post-war economic conditions. At the time the war department called for greater pro- duction the plant was located within the city limits of Berlin and expansion was impossible. Accordingly it was decided to use previously acquired property in the suburbs. The plant occupies about 265,000 sq. ft. The main building, which houses the execu- tive offices and the shops, is located at the southwest corner of the grounds, as this is the shortest route to the nearby railroad station. Advantage was taken of the pre- vailing west winds in locating the foundry as far as possible from the other buildings, in order to reduce the noise and dust so far as they were concerned. Traffic is maintained by means of paved streets, standard gage railroad sidings con- nected with the nearby main line and a system of industrial tracks. The works are divided by a paved main street into a large western area, where the main building is located and a smaller eastern section. In the eastern section are located the pattern storage house, the pattern shop, heat treat- ing shop, boiler house, foundry, foundry material storage shed and garage. The standard gage tracks consists of two switching and receiving tracks, also a according to rated capacity with direct- current motors. Tests are also made for foundations for new type machines. Connected to the main shop and located on the ground floor of the wings is part of the steel storage, the tool room, cutting-off machines, general storage, storage for semi-finished products and transformer station. Electric power is derived from public service classification track at the northern ex- _ Interior of Pattern Storage Building, Showing Arrangement of Fireproof tremity, which in turn serves four distri- tooms, Each of Which Serves to Store Patterns and Cores Belong bution tracks by means of turntables. The outer of the eastern tracks serves to bring materials for the foundry, boiler housé and pattern shop; the inner one for raw materials for the machine shops. The two western tracks are used for shipping. Switching within the grounds is carried on by a loco- motive using benzol as fuel, which is small enough to One Type of Machine lines at 6000 volts alternating current and transformed to 220 volts. The transformer station is located at the center of distribution of electric power consumption of the whole works in the interest of economy of electric4! losses. The foundry is the only other unit having 4 256 " cust 4, 1921 THE IRON AGE 1 of the Workshop Showing Good Light Treatment, Also Group No special foundations are used for machines with rotary motion former station, as it was shown that this reduced ation and operating cost. 1000 to 1200 stribution to ial motors effected partly ans of under- g ind cable and through pipe “ae nduit. The mo- ; average 20 hp. ‘ ised for group drive by means of shaft- g 65 to 72 ft. long. Re he roof is of 4 rete tile con- yn. All sky- face the north The works require ts and ap- direct sun- vay from the y and the e ii. The pipes are lo- ist under the be part of construction rs of the floor of the main workshop is of wood block nerete base and has proved serviceable. viest of the machine tools, espe- those with reciprocating motion, pecial concrete foundations; all achines are mounted on_ skids. ps located in the wings are not- their light treatment which is by good fenestration, compara- irrow working floor space of 40 the light color of the ceiling and lhe floors of these shops are of construction supported on I- taking heavy floor loads. tors 6% x 10 x 13 ft. in size communication between’ the loors. The elevator shaft, the toilets form a separate group ding. torage and distribution of the lu- oils is one of the features of the he oil is stored in the basement servoirs of 500, 1000, 2500 gal. rom which pipe connections lead road siding. The oil is forced rels, or tank cars into the reser- bonic acid gas. Accurate meas- es are installed to keep account The Workshop of the Apprentice School. The solicitous about this department and devotes particular attention to it Only of all oil used. Oil used in automatic screw and other machines is centrifugally cleansed and then filtered for further use The outside walls of the large buildings are carried out in slag of a brown violet color. This material possesses the advan- tage of not showing the accumulation of grime and smoke, unavoidable in works of this character. The inner walls of the U are of glazed tile in order to help the lighting of the one-story shop building. The pattern storage building is one of the economic features of the works. It is an absolutely fireproof structure of eight stories including the basement, each 8% ft. high, divided into a number of small fireproof rooms. Each room serves as a storage place for the patterns belonging to one type of machine, together with the cores. This allows of very easy inspection and is a safeguard against damage by fire. A 3000-lb. capacity elevator is used for the transfer of the patterns to and from the various floors. The pattern storage building is con- nected to the engineering department in the executive building by means of an arch gallery. This is to allow the designers to check up old patterns, avoid as possible so as to much as making of new ones. The space above the arched gallery : used for blueprint- ing apparatus using natural light. Next to the pattern stor- age building is the pattern shop which is a two-story slag structure. A special! compartment is pro vided for machines causing dust and making noise. The laboratory for testing materials is located in the heat treating shop. This includes a metallographic, a chemical and physi cal laboratory. The foundry has its own laboratory for test management is very ing pig and cast iron. The boiler house is used for heating the entire plant. The Wash and Locker Rooms Are of White Tile Wall Construction, with Hot and Cold Running Water wa ai podew ot amt ae “ 258 Meals are The Workmen's Dining Room Is Light and Airy. at noon It is equipped with two fire-tube boilers with auto- matic grate stokers. The heat in the flue gas is utilized for heating the feedwater by means of a heat exchanger. Outside the boiler house is a 1500-ton coal storage yard. A crane equipped with a grab bucket takes the coal to the bunkers in the boiler house from which the automatic stokers are fed. Two or three workmen only are required for all of this work. The boiler house is so planned that in case of necessity a power house can be added, equipped with steam tur- bines, in which case the exhaust steam would be used for heating. Adjourning the boiler house is a building containing fire apparatus, also a building for the com- pressors, which serves the entire plant with compressed air. The foundry has a casting floor 71 x 325 ft., con- stituting the center bay, with lean-tos on either side. In the eastern section are located. the cupolas, dryers, sand and core makers and in the western the raw ma- terials, patterns, wash, locker rooms and shop offices. The foundry is equipped with a number of stripping plate molding machines and jarring machines. Sand blast apparatus and pneumatic chipping tools are used for cleaning castings. The foundry is connected to the coke shed by a tunnel, the top of which is equipped with hoppers. The hopper valves serve coke cars, which are taken by elevator direct to the cupolas. The cupolas are equipped with sprinkler systems to prevent fire damage from flying sparks. Hot air is used for heating the foundry in winter. During the summer months the same system is used for admitting fresh air from the outside, which has proved a great comfort during casting operations. The crane runways extend in the open at both ends in order to facilitate the handling of flasks and finished cast- ings. Provision is made so that the upper part of the end walls can be pushed out in the crane runway and replaced when the crane enters the building. The firm is particularly solicitous for its appren- tices. Practical education is given in a special work- shop equipped with all types of machine tools. In addition there are two class rooms, a large drafting room, a lecture hall, library and research department. A large sodded playground with a covered turn hall are used for the physical development of the appren- tices. Installations pertaining to the welfare of the work- men, such as dining room, washrooms, bathrooms, locker rooms and toilets are systematically arranged and well equipped to conform to modern hygienic prac- tice. These rooms are readily cleansed and are easily accessible. The fundamental observed in their loca- tion was that all unnecessary’ steps must be avoided. The main wash and locker room is located in the basement and is lined with white glazed tile to a height of 6% ft. It is equipped with rows of wash basins with hot and cold water bibs. The lockers, one assigned THE IRON AGE August 4, 1921 to each man, are also located in this room, The place is lighted electrically and heated, The workmen on the upper floors have similar provisions. The toilets are equally divided on a ratio basis of one cell to 12 workmen. In addition to the wash room there is a special bath house equipped with 10° showers and 10 tubs. The dining room and kitchen are located in the mansard with a capacity for the preparation of 1200 quarts of food. The kitchen has a white tile floor and is equipped with four steam cooking kettles. In ad- joining rooms are electrically § driven potato pealers, meat choppers, dish washing machines, knife cleaners, etc. The food is passed from the kitchen to the dining hall through large window openings, which is efficient and allows the workmen to survey the kitchen. Special smaller dining rooms are assigned to the officials and foremen. In addition to the ground occupied by the plant, the company owns 40 acres of land, which is rented to the workmen for gardening at a nominal price. There are about 200 vegetable gardens. Water for sprinkling is provided by the company. The plant which is planned to employ from 1000 to 1500 workmen is so laid out that 50 to 100 per cent additions can be made without disturbing the present arrangement. served here Less Cast Iron Pipe Made Figures of the Census Bureau show a heavy reduc- tion in the production of cast iron pipe in 1919, com- pared with 1914, the figures being 702,550 tons in 1919 and 1,120,720 tons in 1914. This reduction is wholly under the heading of gas and water pipe and fittings, which fell from 909,070 tons in 1914 to 447,880 tons in 1919. There was a healthy increase in production of soil and plumbers’ pipe and fittings, from 211,650 tons in 1914 to 254,670 tons in 1919. Values of various kinds of pipe and cast iron fit- tings, however, showed a large increase under all head- ings. The total value of the products of the industry advanced from $28,102,600 to $51,902,800. Unit values of cast iron pipe and fittings, per ton of 2000 lbs., in 1914, were $23.18, as compared with $69.05 in 1919. Under the two large tonnage items, the unit value for gas and water pipe and fittings in 1914 was $21.87 as compared with $62.79 in 1919. Similarly, the unit value of soil and plumbers’ pipe and fittings has ad- vanced from $29.17 in 1914 to $80.07 in 1919. Cast Tron Pipe Census Bureau's Summary Concerning the Industry—1919 1919 1914 Tons Tons Kind 2000 Lb Value 2000 Lb, Value *Total value of prod- ucts ee ‘ mate $51,902,800 wees $28,102,600 Cast iron pipe and fit- | Ra 702.550 48,514,600 1.120.720 25,979,200 Gas and water pipe and fittings...447,880 28,124,100 909,070 19,805,500 Bell and_ spigot pipe .........375,.200 19,257,700 828,900 16,669,600 Flanged pipe ... 23,790 1.714.200 27.290 706,500 Culvert pipe 5,660 244.000 11.010 946,500 eo). ere $3,230 6,808,200 41.870 2,182,900 Soil and plumbers’ + pipe and fittings.254.670 20,390,500 211,650 6,173,370 All other castings... 16,400 1.614.500 13.580 681,700 All other products... 1,773,700 genes 1,441,700 *Includes 59 establishments primarily engaged in_ the manufacture of cast iron pipe with products valued at $50,235,100 in 1919 and $26,659,360 in 1914; and seven estab- lishments in 1919 and nine in 1914 in other lines of manu- facture, reporting cast iron pipe to the value of $1,667 700 and $1,443,240 respectively. Hare’s Motors, a corporation formed a year or 80 ago to take over the management and operation of the companies manufacturing the Mercer, Simplex and Locomobile automobiles, is to be dissolved. The com- panies making those cars will operate once more 4§ separate units. No definite plan has been made for a reorganization of the Locomobile concern, but have been for the Mercer Motors Co., which owns the Simplex Automobile Co. x» rere Sh Ay ao = Chemical Reactions in Foundry Cupolas Actions and Reactions — Combustion, Cupola Gases, Carbon Ratio, Melting Efficiency, Metal Losses and Gains — Cupola Balance Sheet .ecompanied by flame—the product of combustion eing a gas or vapor. It may be stated, in the of cupola combustion, that the carbon in coke and cen in air have such strong chemical affinity for l a strict sense, combustion is rapid oxidation each other in the presence of heat that they unite with ce. By the force of their chemical union, com- on is instantly produced and intense heat evolved. Th higher the temperature, the more rapidly will com- n proceed. As air is the vehicle which carries oxygen into the cupola and coke the medium of carbon supply, a general acquaintanceship with air, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and their behavior in the presence of heat becomes necessary to a full understanding of cu- pola actions and reactions and the products of com- pustion. Air and Its Constituents One ecu. ft. of dry air under standard conditions (32 deg. Fahr. and 29.93 in. of mercury) weighs 1.293 ounces, or 0.0808 lb.+ The volumes of all permanent gases under uniform pressure increase uniformly with uniform inerease of temperature. Expressed in the Fahrenheit scale, a gas expands ,j, for each degree increase above 32 deg. Fahr. The volume is propor- tional to the absolute temperature; that is, to T— 382+ 490 (= 7+ 458), where T is the tempera- ture in deg. Fahr. 3ut the volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure upon it, therefore doubling the pressure halves the volume. The density of a gas varies inversely as its absolute temperature. For practical metallurgical pur- poses the composition of air may be stated in the fol- lowing ratios and percentages: ———Ratios———, -——Percentages——, By Volume By Weight By Volume By Weight On 53) 3 20.8 23.1 Nit a 10 79.2 76.9 Oxygen (O,) has molecular weight of 32, density of 16; and one cu. ft. under standard conditions weighs 1.44 ounces or 0.09 lb. Nitrogen (N,) has molecular weight of 28, density of 14; and one cu. ft. weighs 1.26 ounces or 0.0787 lb. The ‘nitrogen gas of the air is practically inert; remains unchanged in the cupola, and merely dilutes the air and gases, thereby very mate- rially lowering temperatures. Carbon in the Coke ‘ke Is a solid fuel containing a high percentage of carbon, and is generally used in the cupola melting sy the union of its carbon with oxygen an heat is produced. The products of this union carbon dioxide (CO.) and carbon monoxide (CO) Zases or vapors. The quantity of heat generated by a { burned in oxygen, its heat of combustion or alue, is expressed in terms of calories or heat . The British thermal unit (B.t.u.) is the quan- ‘ heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. water 1 deg. Fahr., at or near its maximum ty (39.1 deg. Fahr.). irbon has a molecular weight of 12; its specific ve 1832 deg. Fahr. is 0.50; therefore it has Specific heat (0.50 x 12) = 6. The boiling carbon. under atmospheric pressure, is re- s 6692 deg. Fahr. Diamond is assumed as rel- ! lard for earbon in the calculation of thermic and its heat of combustion is approximately B.t.u. Thus the heat.of combustion from one ngham, Ala. nees, pounds and tons in this article are Avoir- s are of 2000 Ib. ——_—_—_— BY Y. A. DYER” pound of solid carbon, exclusive of heat of vaporiza- tion, is 14,580, or in round numbers 14,500, B.t.u. when burned to carbon dioxide. ” The heat of vaporization of carbon may be obtained by subtracting the heat of combustion of solid carbon from that of the carbon in the gas. The heat of com- bustion of solid carbon to carbon monoxide is 4370 B.t.u., effected by 1 Ib. of carbon uniting with 1.333 lb. of oxygen to form 2.333 lb. of carbon monoxide. The 2.333 lb. of monoxide gas, in burning to carbon dioxide, generates (2.333 « 4370) 10,195 B.t.u., or in round numbers 10,200; therefore, (10,195 — 4370) 5825 B.t.u. represents the heat of vaporization of car- bon. Then, the total heat of combustion becomes (14,580 +- 5825) = 20,405 B.t.u., of which 14,580 are sensible or available heat units for melting and super- heating, and 5825 are latent heat units, or heat neces- sary to vaporize carbon. Carbon Vapors or Gases As the gases of the cupola are the products of com- bustion, or union of carbon and oxygen, and are the heat producing agencies for the melting and super- heating of iron, their relative values will be discussed. Carbon dioxide (CO.) gas has molecular weight of 44, density of 22; one cu. ft. weighs 1.98 ounces or 0.1236 lb. under standard conditions; and one pound requires for its complete combustion ( }3 ) — 2.667 lb. or 29.6 cu. ft. of oxygen, or 11.517 lb. or 142.44 cu. ft. of air. Carbon dioxide contains 12 parts of carbon and 32 parts of oxygen in 44 parts of gas. It may be stated that the gas is formed in the cu- pola by one atom of carbon taking up or uniting with two atoms of oxygen, forming one molecule of carbon dioxide; or 1 lb. of carbon uniting with (12:32::1:2.667) 2.667 lb. of oxygen, forming (1 + 2.667) 3.667 lb. of carbon dioxide, creating perfect combustion and gene- rating approximately 14,500 B.t.u. The flame tempera- ture of carbon burned to carbon dioxide in air is re- ported by LeChatelier as being 3700 deg. Fahr. Carbon monoxide (CO) gas has molecular weight of 28, density of 14; weighs 1.26 ounces or 0.07875 lb. per cu. ft.; and 1 lb. requires for its complete combus- tion 1.333 1b. or 14.8 cu. ft. of oxygen; or 5.759 lb. or 71.22 cu. ft. of air. Carbon monoxide contains 12 parts of carbon and 16 parts of oxygen in 28 parts of gas. It may be stated that the gas is formed in the cu- pola by the molecule of carbon dioxide (3.667 Ib.) tak- ing up, or uniting with, one atom of carbon (1 lIb.), forming 2 molecules of carbon monoxide gas (4.667 lb.) ; or 1 Ib. of carbon, by this transfer, is united with only (12:16::1:1.333) — 1.333 lb. of oxygen, forming (1 + 1.333) = 2.333 lb. of monoxide gas, creating im- perfect combustion. The absorption of heat by carbon monoxide gas is at the rate of approximately 10,200 B.t.u. per pound of carbon charged in the cupola, and the net amount of heat given out when one pound of carbon forms monoxide gas is approximately only (14,500 — 10,200) 4300 B.t.u., or less than one-third of the heat generated in the formation of carbon dioxide gas. Hence, in the matter of melting and superheating metal, the advan- tages to be derived from the carbon dioxide flame be- come very apparent. The flame temperature of carbon burned. to carbon monoxide in air is reported by Le- Chatelier as 2335 deg. Fahr. Should the CO gas pick up another atom of oxygen in its ascent through incandescent carbon in the cupola, combustion may be completed. Therefore, if 2.333 Ib. of CO takes up 1.333 lb. of oxygen, 3.667 lb. of CO, 259 he only le afm oa 5 wet? =the seen +ttator~ a nips «oe coe > ol tg ee a a ee 4, alias +i 260 THE IRON will be formed, and the heat produced per lb. of car- bon will be 10,206 B.t.u. The heat produced in oxidiz- ing 1 lb. of CO to CO, amounts to approximately 206 . (5 = 4375 B.t.u. Carbon monoxide burned to oO 333 &eVV0V0 carbon dioxide in air has a flame temperature of 3810 deg. Fahr., according to LeChatelier. Nitrogen Present in the Air Since 1 lb. of oxygen is contained in 4.32 lb. of air, the amount of air required to burn 1 lb. of carbon to CO; is (2.667 x 4.32 11.52 lb.; and since each lb. of air contains 0.769 lb. nitrogen, the total nitrogen is (0.769 X 11.52) — 8.85 lb. In the matter of formation of CO gas, the amount of air necessary is (1.333 > 4.82) — 5.76 lb.; therefore, the amount of nitrogen is (0.769 « 5.76) = 4.43 lb. If more air be supplied to the cupola than is neces- sary to satisfy each atom of carbon with oxygen, the excess weight of air will absorb additional heat from the fuel and the oxygen present will be left free or uncombined; therefore it will suffer no interference in its attack on the metal. Carbon Ratio and Flame Temperature Because of its nonvolatility, no flame is produced in burning solid carbon. But when the temperature in the cupola becomes sufficiently high to raise a portion of the carbon to incandescence, flame is produced by the burning gases. While in the solid state, in the presence of heat, carbon remains incandescent; as it - decomposes a gas or vapor is produced in the form of finely dissociated carbon particles that are seen to burn in the cupola and produce flame. The following for- mula for carbon burned to carbon monoxide illustrates the principle of calculating approximate flame tem- perature of carbon burned in air: Parts by weight of oxygen and carbon. .2.333 Specific heat of carbon monoxide at 3200 SS) eh ee eee ee er, 0.278 Parts of nitrogen introduced .......... 4.430 Specific heat of nitrogen at 3200 deg. UES sn a silts eb lin wie nese s S,Sek eC 0.278 I ea al 4,385 4385 2.333 X 0.278 + 4.43 x 0.278 If carbon be burned to monoxide in oxygen, the flame temperature would be approximately: 4385 2.333 X 0.278 Therefore, some idea may be formed of the de- vitalization or drop in temperature caused by the pres- ence of nitrogen in air mixture supplying oxygen for combustion; also of the possible thermal effects of com- bustion by oxygen. It will have been noted that the actions and re- actions which produce the dioxide and monoxide gases create the flame and heated volume of gases which rise in the cupola and mingle with the descending charges. However, it should be paramount in the mind of the melter that the gas which supplies the intense flame is carbon dioxide, therefore any condition which tends to minimize its formation or lower its flame tempera- ture—such as insufficient air, excessive coke bed and intermediate charges, or excessive air delivery, creat- ing dilution by excess nitrogen and uncombined oxygen —should be eliminated as far as possible. Sundry tests by many successful melters have proved that the height of fuel bed should be such at all times during the process of operation that at its upper level practically all the oxygen of the air blown into the cupola will have been combined with the car- bon in the coke. Such condition will result in the utili- zation of the maximum flame temperature at the crit- ical point. Ordinarily the greatest constant heat occurs in the cupola between 18 and 36 in. above the tuyeres (depending on size, construction and opera- tion of cupola), where the zone of fusion exists. At this point the theoretical maximum flame temperature created by carbon burning to dioxide would be approx- il 7 imately 3666 x 0.382 + 8.85 X 0.278 6,746 deg. Fahr. 3,777 deg. Fahr. AGE July 21, 192) In well regulated cupolas the gases usually appro .i- mate, by volume, the following range of analyses at the critical point in the melting zone area: SE: <ivsbwassadente 15.00 to 16.00 per cent 2) Rr ere ee 10.00 to 8.00 per cent reer 74.50 to 75.50 per cent Di tine aer rec ances 0.50 to 0.50 per cent thus creating a carbon ratio (<o) of 1.5 or 2 t Under the conditions met in ordinary practice, an idea! cupola working carbon ratio may be stated as 2 to |, and with such existing conditions a melting ratio of 10 to 1 will obtain, provided first-class coke is used. At the zone of fusion the temperature may actually range from 3150 to 3250 deg. Fahr. under approximate gas conditions as stated above—that is: 60 to 67 per cent carbon dioxide and 40 to 33 per cent carbon n oxide; temperatures of the two gases being based LeChatelier’s figures. The temperatures at which th gases leave the cupola vary with rate of driving and height of charging area—ranging from 600 to 700 d Fahr. in high cupolas to 1000 to 1100 deg. Fah: very low cupolas. It should be the aim of the melter to select suitab| coke, ascertain definite melting zone and so arranm charging conditions, air volume and pressure that as small a portion as possible of the carbon in the « of upper charges will be transferred to carbon mon oxide or consumed as such before reaching melting zone. This feature has an important bearing on the equilibrium of the carbon ratio. Water spraying of intermediate coke charges is often resorted to in ex- treme cases of too free burning coke. However, the author contends that this method is an expedient—a temporary remedy, not a cure. There is a basic cause, and if coke above the melting zone burns away too readily the character of the coke should be closely ex- amined, cupola construction checked closely, or charg- ing and operating conditions remedied. Actions and Reactions Simple Cupola chemical actions and reactions are compara- tively simple and stable, compared with blast furnace reactions and chemical equilibrium. In facilitating these actions and reactions the important members of the cupola charge to be dealt with are coke and air. The air blown through the tuyeres supplies oxygen, which immediately sets up a chemical action by com- bining with the carbon in the coke. While there is no way of definitely determining which action takes place first, it is reasonable assume that the carbon of the coke is burned to di- oxide instantly, then becomes carbon monoxide by burning solid carbon, which in turn is burned back to carbon dioxide—therefore the actions and _ reactions become reversible or interchangeable. However, the cupola the re-burning of monoxide to dioxide oc- curs too high above the melting zone to be of servic for melting. Chemical actions and reactions in the cupola are equated below in substantially the form and order in which they occur: 1 Carbon burns to dioxide gas = C + 0,= CO. 2 Carbon dioxide is reduced by carbon = 2C + O, = 2C0 3 Water and moisture are decomposed = C + H.0 CO + H; Under average working conditions, tempe! ture about 62 deg. Fahr., barometer 29.6 humidity 65 per cent, 1 cu. ft. of air weighs (0.0808 490 —, 29.60 = 520 “> 29.93 0.0754 lb. and contains by weig (0.0754 0.231) = 0.0174 lb. of oxygen. To supp! 1 lb. of oxygen under these conditions requires 1 as ; (; om) 57 cu. ft. of air. But 2.666 Ib. of oxyge” are required for complete combustion of 1 lb. of ¢at- bon to carbon dioxide gas; therefore, (2.666 57) 152 cu. ft., or 11.46 lb. of air will be required to supply the necessary oxygen to burn 1 Ib. of carbon. If coke has a fixed carbon content of 88 per cent, then each pound of coke will contain 0.88 Ib. of carbon. Maintaining intermediate coke ratio to iron charged of 1 to 10 means that the actual melting ratio wi!! ¢ nearer 8 to 1, or about 250 Ib. of coke for each 2000 a rust 4, 1921 THE IRON AGE 261 3 a ; a” metal, when account is taken of the portion of The gases escaping at 800 deg. Fahr. will carry out et ed which burns away during the melting process; the following sensible heat: re it will be safe to compute the burning of an ve of 250 lb. of coke in melting 2000 lb. of iron; at coke will contain (0.88 « 250) —220 lb. of smuch as only 60 to 65 per cent of the carbon y present at the melting zone as CO,, and 40 er cent as CO gas (an average of 2.16 lb. oxygen ind of carbon), there will be actually needed for ng weights (220 < 0.62 « 2.67) — 364 lb. of yr CO, and (220 x 0.38 x 1.33) 111 lb. oxy- - CO—a total of 475 lb. of oxygen, carrying LO 214.72 0.03375 6,362 cu. ft. Volume CO and CO,: : ‘ 6362 Volume nitrogen introduced: { ———— — 6362 = . duced: | 974-4 0.10 oan 20,146 cu. ft. Volume of gases: CO, 2,672 CO 3,690 N 20,146 26,508 cu. ft. Heat losses from escaping gases: N and CO 23,836 x 0.0196) 800 de 435.728 Bt g. = 435,728 B.t.u. 5Q2 It itr . 583 + 475 ' 9 A790 . ‘ . ) 1583 lb. of nitrogen, or (1583 + 475) co, 2.672 « 0.029 § 7,295 cu. ft. of air. However, on account of According to Ledebur, the total heat in 1 lb. of cast BALANCE SHEET (Per 2000 Lb. Charge) Unit Casting Slag Gas Per Cent Lb. Weight Weight Weight Weight 1950 93.11 1815.64 Fe 1808.39 FeO 9.32 3.60 70.20 Cc 70.20 1.95 38.02 S 36.07 SiO, 4.17 0.06 3:37 Ss ae 0.63 12.29 P 12.29 0.65 12.68 Mn 9.75 MnO 50 75.00 37.50 SiO, 37.51 22.00 11.00 AlsOs 11.00 3.00 1.50 Alkalies 1.50 244 88.00 214.72 C 214.72 irocarbons 1.30 3.17 CoO 3.17 \ 0.70 1.71 H,O i ( SiO, 10.95 i Al,O: 5.71 A 9.35 22.82 4 FeO. 45 r ( CaO 0.49 s 0.65 1.58 Ss 0.60 CaS 2.20 nr 50 ‘ac 98.00 49.00 CaO 27.44 CoO 21.56 Met 0.38 0.19 MeO 0.09 cw) 0.1 s 0.97 0.48 SiO, 0.48 Als 0.65 0.33 AlsOs 0.33 A 2010 ’ 23.1 464.00 Oo 458.86 . 76.9 1546.00 N 1546.00 4304 4304.00 1938.47 119.41 2246.12 ppage, bends in pipe, pipe friction, leakage iron melted at 2192 deg. Fahr. is 441 B.t.u. These and obstructions, approximately 10 per cent more air » blown in order to insure the free delivery of iantity, or (27295 + 2729) = 30,024 cu. ft., which ly tallies with the generally accepted blowing 0000 cu. ft. for each ton of metal charged. Heat Balance and Melting Efficiency heat balance of a cupola, or distribution of value of coke—heat utilized for melting and ating iron, melting and heating slag, expelling vat apor from air and gas (CO,) from limestone, be fairly accurately computed by the aid of practical and theoretical factors. Thus—a cu- rning 244 lb. of coke (containing 88 per cent on) to melt and superheat 1950 lb. of iron, eat for slag and other purposes—with escap- ontaining by volume 14 per cent CO, 10 per and 76 per cent nitrogen—will yield the fol- site « coke passing to gases: 244 & 0.88 — 214.72 lb. ‘u. ft. gas: Be CO 0.14 « 0.03375 0.00473 lb. P CO, 0.10 * 0.03375 = 0.00337 lb. 0.00810 Ib. 5 — ed 214-12 _ 96 5 , ases produced: 0.0081 =26,508 cu. ft. ray er in cu. ft. CO gas: 7654 + 22.22 — 344 B.t.u. 7p sy. ‘ CO in gases: 0.14 344= 48 B.t.u. sorbed by CO gas: 26,508 « 48 = 1,272,384 B.t.u. er of coke: 244 X 0.88 & 14,500 = 3,113,440 B.t.u. figures represent the heat units in such cast iron just melted at 2192 deg. Fahr. The mean specific heat for cast iron, from 32 deg. to t deg. Fahr. as reported by Richards, is 0.12 + 0.000046t. Therefore, to super- heat 1 lb. of such metal to (say) 2357 deg. Fahr. would require 2357 « 0.224—528 B.t.u., or 87 additional B.t.u. for superheating. A gray iron which melts at approximately 2260 deg. Fahr. requires 2260 « 0.22 497 B.t.u. for melting, and to superheat to (say) 2460 deg. Fahr. would require 2460 x 0.23 = 565 B.t.u. By reason of the lower melting point of white or mottled iron, relatively less heat will be required— thus: assuming a white iron to melt at about 2075 deg. Fahr., it will require 2075 x 0.21 35 B.t.u. to melt; and to superheat to say 2275 deg. Fahr. will require 2275 & 0.22 = 500 B.t.u., or 65 additional B.t.u. for superheating. Because it is more easily oxidized, white iron will not admit of the same degree of super- heat as gray iron. It is safe to assume 545 B.t.u. for melting and superheating ordinary gray iron. It requires approximately 900 B.t.u. to melt and heat a pound of calcium-aluminum-silicate slag. It re- quires 1846 B.t.u. to expel 1 lb. of gas (CO,) from limestone. At about 62 deg. Fahr. the air, if satu- rated, would contain 4.92 grains of water vapor per cu. ft. With humidity of 65 per cent, the air would . ba ‘ 26,650 * 3.20 contain 4.92 « 0.65 = 3.20 grains, of (Fee iS )= ‘ 12.18 lb. of water vapor per ton of iron melted. It re- quires 5780 B.t.u. to decompose 1 Ib. of water vapor. Coke exposed to the weather absorbs moisture rapidly —as much as 4 to 17 lb. of water per 100 lb. of coke when exposed to drenching for a period of 2 to 72 hr. 262 THE IRON AGE Therefore, if wet coke be used there will be a substan- tial drawing on the heat balance of the cupola to expel moisture from that source. It requires 1091.7 B.t.u. August 4, 1921 ess. Figures used are taken from a test heat made by the author, using 39-in. cupola at the Alamo Iron Works, San Antonio, Texas. Total metal charged was " to vaporize 1 lb. of water. 18,500 lb., composed of 58 per cent machinery scrap : In summing up the heat losses, and considering the 30 per cent pig iron and 12 per cent soft steel sera: i heat necessary to melt the iron and slag, the following 2250 Ib. Solvay coke and 426 Ib. Texas limestone, Tota! 4} theoretical cupola heat balance sheet will fairly repre- metal, by actual weight, received from the heat was sent the useful energy expended for work and energy escaped per 244 lb. of coke consumed in melting and superheating 1950 lb. of metal: Heat power of coke: 17,761 lb.; total slag produced 1150 lb. Reduced to ton basis—iron produced, 1920.1 lb.; col consumed, 244 lb.; stone burned, 50 lb.; slag produced, 124 lb. Difference in weight between total meta! (| ; 244 x 0.88 X 14,500 liga ———_—oc6UCm Cee X 0.88 & 14, 3,113,440 iy Riieelaiate 5 gee H To melt and superheat iron: Si 6 - - _— inlets eRe o melere Precene « etene oe - 14 re 1950 « 545 1,062,750 BGS KEAN Ae eels 4'p kde Yui ed Dea eRP AUER RRR eRe 14,27 ft To melt and heat slag: a 7 prAe mR ene saeeh ese Eh oer eha eek sae seen s ERR 11 ; 120 x 900 108,000 Mg oO CUPRA AH ES 60 CGEM E CHE EMEA EW OR Fo hE Ded ORE RE NORE 23.48 To expel water vapor: Mn O Denne eee ee eee eee teen eee eee eee eees 3.1¢ 12.18 x 5780 70,400 ae i RSE W ATE SoS S OAM Ke eee ae Web ae eee ana eee es | 21.66 « 1846 39,985 10( q Improper combustion: 1,272,384 cman “nun rn ' ; Escaping gases: 435,728 charged and metal received, 739 Ib., or 79.8 lb. per ton | Radiation and conduction: of iron melted, as shown by cleaning room record— By difference sania 124,393 3,113,440 total loss from all sources, 3.99 per cent. Coke ash { tine effici - LVL, 190 94 40 analysis lusive of sulph s 48 t silic: : x — 2412 pe analysis, exclusive of sulphur, was er cen a, { mitediememened 3,113,440 paLS: pat gant. 25 per cent alumina, 19.5 per cent ws oxide, lime 5 “ 1,272,384 per cent and magnesia 2.50 per cent. Following are Improper combustion: 40.86 per cent. 3,113,440 Cupola Charge Balance Sheet metal mixture and casting analyses: Metal Mix Metal Analysis ; : é SOTA) CATDON. ..scssis eves’ 3.60 per cent 3.60 per cent The following theoretical balance sheet graphically Silicon Fa Ee die paper he ee 1.95 per cent 1.855 per cent : imitans . : iat : - UMIPHuUP .ncceccsssveseves 0.06 per cent 0.089 per cent illustrates the final form in which all the materials en Phosphorus .............. 0.63 per cent 0.640 per cent tering the cupola are disposed of by the melting proc- Manganese .............. 0.65 per cent 0.546 per cent | A New Rail Specification Proposed Provides for Rolling Tie Plates from Top of Each Ingot—Treatment in Soaking Pits—Lenient as to Cold Straightening Robert W. Hunt & Co., Chicago, inspection, test- ing and consulting engineers, addressed a letter on Aug. 1 to railroad officials interested and to the principal officers of steel rail manufacturing companies in respect to rail specifications. His connection with the manufacture of steel rails over the entire period of their production lends special weight to any consid- eration by him of the subject, which in the present case is a specification which he believes will help in rail manufacturers and rail consumers uniting. A copy of the specification is given below. The principal points of difference between it and other specifications are printed in italics, thus to be easily distinguished. Captain Hunt admits to claiming for years that each ingot cast on a heat is a unit unto itself and de- (Fee ROBERT W. HUNT, head of the firm of ening of rails can be very much minimized and in some cases eliminated without detriment to the track condi- tions, and with such obvious saving to the manufac- turers as would more than cover the cost of milling the ends of the rails square and free from burrs. Better attention to the soaking pit practice and restricting the cold straightening, I believe, will ultimatelly afford re lief from the development of internal fissures.” The specifications follow: Specifications for Open-Hearth Steel Rails 80 lb. to 110 lb., Inclusive, Per Yd. Inspection ACCESS TO WORKS 1. Inspectors representing the purchaser shall have fret 4 serving of being tested and treated as such. On Jan. ¢ntry to the works of the manufacturer at all times whik +} : 4 oa Z . 3 the contract is bei