The Iron Age 1920-04-15: Vol 105 Iss 16

7 IE IRON AGE New York, April 15, 1920 ESTABLISHED 1855 WY}: te 4, ‘3 i i } / PT ip York, appeared in the issues of for making seamless brass and copper tubing and some of these have been put into extens- ive practical application. This article will deal with ‘the processes employed by the Bridgeport Brass Co., which has been manufacturing seamiless tubing for over 30 years. In this plant three processes of tube making are employed. 1—Piercing. 2—Cast shell. 3—Cupping. All these processes impose extremely severe con- ditions on the brass maker. The quality of the metal is all important—it must be definitely known and uniformly maintained if tubes are to be made successfully on a large scale. It is not many years ago that the quality of the utput of all tube mills depended almost entirely upon the skill of a few master brass makers and tube men. As far as the drawing was concerned, t was a general practice to bring a sample of each batch to the head of the department and ask for instructions as to how much reduction should be in the first draw and so on, There was no finite rule for determining the number of re- ductions or the percentage reduction. As a matter ' fact, investigation showed that the reduction of rea was a matter of the wildest guesswork, even th the most expert tube makers. Stor mak different methods have been devised VOL. 105: No. 16 Making Seamless Abit Siege in the Process as Followed 6 by, the Bridgeport Brass Co. id OTe IPAU CM Cake 1 (Three articles on the making of brass by the same author, who is engineer of Ray D. Lillibridge, Inc., Neu Feb. 19, March 18 and March 25.) The Bridgeport Brass Co., Bridgeport, Conn., considered and tackled this problem by setting up an experimental plant some 15 years ago, and in connection with the laboratory studied every phase of the tube making problem. In the oper- ation of this plant, they used as far as possible men from their own shops, so that they would get the most practical benefit from the experiments. As a result of the operation of this experimental plant, tube making machinery was developed, and the equipment of the present tube mill, which is one of the largest in the country, is special, having been designed and built as a result of development work done in the experimental plant. As far as the various operations are concerned, each one has been definitely determined and speci- fied, and it is no longer necessary to perform any one of the many operations by guesswork or in accordance with the judgment of the man in charge. As far as drawing is concerned, graphical charts have been prepared which enable the foreman to determine the proper reduction for any tube of a given diameter and wall thickness. Piercing Process Solid cast billets from the electric casting shop are first turned in a lathe to remove surface impur- ities and mechanical imperfections, which reduces the chances of imperfections in the surface of the 1087 ai sient April 15, 19 The Billets Bef, Being Charge Into the Heati Furnace Are Cu; ped at One End ¢ Facilitate Piercir Operation The Heated Billets Roll Out of the Furnace Into the Intake of the Pierc- ing Machine The Operator b Means of Levers and Electric Mas ter Switches Con trols the Opera tions of Rolling the Tubes *hree Conical Roll Force the Billet Against the Centrally Sup- ported Projectile Shaped Piercing Point pril 15, 1920 finished tube. After being turned, the billets are delivered to the piercing mill heating furnace, where they are gradually brought up to the proper temperature for piercing. In the view showing the billets entering the heating furnace, it will be noted that they are cupped on one end. The cupping facilitates the centering of the piercing point. When heated to the proper temperature, the billet is rolled out of the furnace into the ntake of the piercing machine. In another f the illustrations a billet may be seen lying n the feed rollers of the machine. The perator standing in the center of the pierc- ng machine, by means of levers and electric naster switches has all functions of the ma- hine under his control. The piercing machine consists of three conical lls, two of which are power driven, the third one ng an idler. The two power driven rolls are sible in this same picture; the drive is located at the extreme right of the picture and is transmitted nrough the long shanks to the rolls in the main dy of the machine. These rolls, including the dler, make a definite small angle with the center ne of the billet, and the points of contact with the llet of all three rolls travel on the same spiral so hat they exert a certain amount of squeeze and lraw the billet through with great power. On the center line of the billet at the exit end the rolls is located the piercing point which is naped like a projectile. This point is carried on a d somewhat longer than the longest tube within the capacity of the machine. A series of guide rolls ind loose sleeves support the rod to prevent spring- ng by the end pressure on the point. A tool head, n the opposite end carries the rod and allows it to - continually as actuated by the friction of the illet. The tool head is mounted on a bed and so ar- ranged that when the finished tube is forced en- tirely over the point and the rod, the rod can be vithdrawn from the tube by causing the tool head » travel backward. The electrical control of this iachine is quite interesting, as it involves a num- er of distinct motions. A view taken from one side of the machine is THE IRON mr. a AGE 1089 Y ‘ , Before Reducing the Tube Diameter by Drawing, an End Must Be Ham- mered or Pointed to a Diameter Small Enough to Reach Through the Die to the Jaws of the Drawing Head At the left in this may be seen a por- tion of the part of the machine which carries the rolls; one of the piercing points is lying on a box also shown. in front of the machine at the left. The central portion of the picture shows that part of the ma- chine which guides and supports the piercing rod and the tube. As may be seen, the guiding mem- bers consist of three sets of three rolls each ar- ranged in triangular formation. They rotate by friction with the tube and may be adjusted by means of gearing to correspond to any diameter of tube within the capacity of the machine. At the extreme right of this picture the tool head whieh carries the piercing rod may be seen. The tube is shown issuing from the machine. When the com- plete tube has passed through the machine, the hy- draulic pistons raise the upper guide rolls and dis- charge the tube toward the front. A number of finished tubes may be seen in the foreground of the picture. Another view in the group shows that part of the machine which carries the rolls. A billet is just starting through and the point is in position to force its way through. The heating furnace is visible in the background. The operation of this machine requires considerable training and experi- ence, and in order to follow the process it is neces- sary for the operator to be located where he can see the rolls and the tube issuing from them. The watching of all the operations and manipulation of 1690 THE Annealing Is Done in Continuous Fur maces and at the Exit Side the Tubes Are Dumped Into a Pickling Tank the various levers, valves and switches, keeps the man pretty busy. After the billet has been pierced and formed into a rough tube, it is delivered to the drawing de- partment where it is put through the draw benches in exactly the same way as the cast tubes are put through. In the cast shell process the metal is cast in the form of a hollow cylinder, and delivered to the draw- ing department. The drawing department where located the annealing furnaces, the draw benches and the finishing machines is known as the tube mill, a general view of which is given at the head of this article. are Drawing Process Before tubing can be drawn, the end must be reduced in size so that it can be passed through April 15, 19 The Draw Benc} Are Operated } Hydraulic Plunge: and Different Stages of Drawing Are Here Shown Pickling Which Removes Dirt and Greass the Tubes Are Hoisted for Su cessive Drawing and Annealing Op erations After the die and inserted into the clutch jaws of the drawing head. The pointing machine operates like a hammer, pounding the ends of the tube into an approximately circular form of smaller diameter than the body o! the tube. The hammer consists of a block with semi-circular openings in the bottom which regis ter with corresponding openings in the anvil. There is a series of these openings of decreasing diameter, and the tube is first inserted in one and then in the other, being turned the meanwhile. A _ horizonta! type of pointing machine for smaller sizes of tube is also shown. Several types of draw bench are used in thi process of tube drawing, but the fundamental prin ciple of drawing is the same in all. The great pro! lem in the process, assuming that the metal Is properly made and the reduction of area for each ril 15, 1920 ration properly chosen, is in the design, work- ship and material of the dies, and the character e lubricant employed. The Bridgeport Brass maintains an oil laboratory where research < is done. It prepares all its own lubricants in rdance with its own formulas and controls by k-tests the quality of the product at all times. A group of draw benches which are operated by raulic plungers is shown among the illustra- ns. The pointed end of the tube is inserted ough the die and gripped by the clamp, a plug or let is inserted inside of the tube and anchored definite point with relation to the die by a rod ndicated. A bushing which serves as a bearing id guide for the rod may be seen in the outer end the tube on the bench at the right, and the next ench at the left shows plainly the plug at the end the rod. Tubes ready to be drawn are dropped a crane on an inclined support alongside of the ntake end of the bench. After drawing, the tubes ire discharged to the left on the exit end of the nachine, from where they are picked up by a crane nd earried to the annealing furnaces. Annealing Annealing is one of the most important opera- tions in the manufacture of tubes, because of its effect upon the drawing strains and the physical properties of the tube. Experimental studies have shown that proper annealing will eliminate prac- tically all drawing strains, and yet not reduce the trength and other desirable properties of the tubes. Tubes Are ung and traightened by the on of Two es of Rolls, One Vertical and Other in a rizontal Plane THE IRON AGE 1091 This result is obtained by establishing a proper balance between maximum temperature and period of heating and maintaining it. To insure these conditions on a production basis, the annealing is done in a continuous furnace, the tubes being car- ried through a constant temperature chamber at a definite rate. One of the reproduced photographs shows a batch of tubes that have just completed the anneal and a second batch issuing from the furnace. The pickle, the purpose of which is to clean the tubes of all grease and dirt, is located at the exit side of the annealing furnace where the tubes are dumped by a tipping mechanism as there shown. After the pickling operation is complete the tubes are hoisted out of the pickle and returned to the draw benches for the next operation. Drawing and annealing the tubes causes a cer- tain amount of distortion due to unbalanced stresses. This is overcome by passing the tubes through a combined springing and straightening machine after the last drawing operation. In this machine each tube is passed through spiral rolls which spring it in such a way as to equalize the strains and straighten it. The small tubes such as used in condenser work are sprung and straightened by the action of two series of rolls, one in the vertical plane and the other in the horizontal plane. The operation of the tube mill as a whole is carefully worked out and controlled to produce tubes that have the least possible amount of strain in their make-up, so as to avoid what is known as | To Overcome Dis- e tortion in the Draw- ing and Annealing, the Tubes Finally Are Passed Through a Com- bined Springing and Straightening Machine. Each tube is passed through spiral rolls Secan dainty Oniincattnlcaaine phloem cana 1092 For Laboratory Tests an Inspector Cuts Off Samples—the View at the Bottom of the Group “season cracking,” and the peculiar corrosion which puzzled brass makers and engineers so long, until it was definitely proved that such brought about by unequal strains. According to Dr. Paul D. Merica, brass, which is a non-homogeneous alloy and usually contains two classes of crystals, is subjected to local diff- erences in electrolytic potential. These potentials are increased by the presence of strains in the metal. The effect of corrosion on the surface of the metal is to produce a series of very fine ridges, and the combined effect of the strains and the intensi- fied electrolytic action is to deepen the hollows, be- cause whatever original strain was in the surface is multiplied from two to five times in the hollows and reduced practically to zero on the high points. Therefore, cracks are opened up in a relatively short time depending upon the amount of original strain and the intensity of the electrolytic action. The straightened tubes are complete as far as the manufacturing process is concerned—all that remains is to put them into condition for shipment and pass them through adequate inspection. After straightening, the first operation is to cut them to definite lengths, which is done with a swinging cir- cular saw where, as shown in one of the cuts, two men are cutting up condenser tubing. The cut tub- ing is next subjected to hydraulic pressure in order to discover any possible flaws or weak spots. An hydraulic testing bench in operation is shown. The man at the left controls the application of the pres- sure. An inspector then cuts off samples for labor- atory tests. It is the practice of the Bridgeport Brass Co. to make such tests on a definite per- centage of the product, so as to control the quality. After the hydraulic test, each tube is subjected to close inspection for dimensions and general appear- ance, before it is packed for shipment. Although the bulk of the output of the tube mill is circular in section, a large variety of special shapes or sections are drawn. While most of the tubes and special sections are sold as raw material to manufacturers, a portion of the production is utilized in the manufacturing department of the corrosion was THE IRON AGE April 15, 19: The Tubes Are { Desired Lengths | Swinging Circu Saw. Then they subject, as showr the view below Hydraulic Pressy company principally for making tubular plumbing connections and supplies, such as straps, bath roon fixtures, etc. Gets Big Bar Mill Order The Morgan Construction Co., Worcester, Mass has a contract to install a 12-in. merchant bar mill at Plant B, United Alloy Steel Corporation, Canton Ohio, to cost, with full equipment, approximately $1,250,000. This mill will be served by a 16-in. rough ing mill, the two having a monthly capacity of 10,000 tons of bars, angles, tees, flats, etc. The equipment for the new mill will include heat ing furnaces, gas producers, cooling beds, shears and the other usual auxiliary equipment, a 3000-h.p. moto! and four 10-ton cranes; the Alliance Machine Co., Alliance, Ohio, having these contracts. The units wil! be enclosed in an all-steel building to be erected by the American Bridge Co., New York. The new mill should be in operation by July, 1921. The Morgan company has 16 mills under constru: tion, six of which are for the United States, six for France and four for England. The company is taking on extra mechanical laborers and is to increase Its draftsman force from 70 to 100. During the past month the company has placed orders for considerab|: heavy duty machine tool equipment. MANY FURNACES BANKED Strike of Railroad Employees in Youngstown District Curtails Production YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO, April 12.—Iron and steel pro- ‘ion was reduced almost to negligible proportions in Mahoning, Shenango and Beaver Valleys at end he week by the unwarranted strike of yardmen and tchmen. Fifteen of the 25 blast furnaces in the ‘honing Valley were banked when the plants closed the week on April 10, and open-hearth furnace and shing operations were largely paralyzed. The ke of a minority of the railroaders, preventing ers from working and producing an enforced lay- rf. was similar in many respects to the drastic strike the steel industry last fall, in that the men arbi- ‘rarily quit without making any complaints or pre- enting any demands. That the action was unpopular is indicated by the infavorable comment on the part of many workers ad- ersely affected thereby. The complete and sudden reaction upon industrial operations and the injury ef- fected upon the public, lead many thoughtful men to mnclude that the strike must be outlawed by adequate legislation as a means whereby one class is enabled to enforce its ruthless will, to the utter disregard of the rights of the public. Proposed Prosecution of Leaders. In the Youngstown and Pittsburgh districts, the letermination of W. G. Lee, chief of the Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen and of John G. Cooper, congress- man from the nineteenth Ohio district, embracing the “steel belt,” to push prosecution of leaders of the out- law strike under the Lever act, struck a responsive chord. Mr. Cooper is a member of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and was formerly and for many years a locomotive driver for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The walkout temporarily dislocated industry and iffected 85 per cent of the steel workers in the Youngstown district. Through selected committees strikers presented wage demands to division superintendents April 10, asking for $1.50 an hour for engineers, $1 for fire- men and yard conductors, 95 cents for yard switchmen and 75 cents for yard clerks. Wages paid by carriers in this district are—yard engineers, 72 to 74 cents an hour; yard firemen, 53% to 55 cents; yard conductors, 66% cents; yard switchmen, 62% cents. Mass meetings of strikers were liberally attended. The recalcitrant railroaders attempted to justify their action by declaring that the strike was only resorted to as a last weapon. “Our leaders assumed authority never knowingly gave them,” they declared in a formal statement, “and agreed to abide by the de- ision of the Cummins-Esch bill and we even then would have waited a reasonable time, but the presi- dent and our leaders decided to drag the wage ques- tion through another political campaign and the board which was to adjust our wages is not yet appointed, ind we do not believe justice will be done. Conse- juently the only thing we could do as Americans who feel it our paramount duty above all other things to raise families according to a decent standard was to strike against the conspiracy of a small group of politicians and disinterested labor leaders. We have followed our leaders and the Government officials through the difficult stages of the war, kept up by nromise that justice would be done us. When ship- lilders, coal miners and other essential occupations ‘emanded better wages and enforced their demands striking regardless of the conditions which existed t that time, we, to show our patriotism and to help vin the war, stayed at work and almost at starvation vages,” Manager Baldwin’s Statement W. A. Baldwin, manager of the Ohio region of the rie Railroad, with concurrence of district managers f other roads, informed committees claiming to rep- esent the strikers that he could not deal with them, THE IRON AGE 1093 and said their action further increased the danger to organized labor in America of the radicals within its ranks who are constantly fomenting strife. He said— “All yardmen have left their work in this territory before presenting any demands or formulating any grievances. Their action appears to be against their old established organization rather than against the railroad companies. Most of these men are old and faithful employees who have heretofore been good citi- zens of the community and who have helped in no small degree toward its development. Their intelligence should indicate to them that their present action is un- wise and will bring no favorable results to them, and is bound to bring unnecessary hardship and suffering on their neighbors and fellow citizens. “Railroads have contracts governing the working conditions and rates of pay of men in yard service. The contracts were executed with representatives of the men who were elected by them. We have no moral right to violate the contracts by changing the condi- tions or rates of pay without the general consent of the representatives of all the men of the Erie Rail- road. We have no legal right under the new railroad act to change the rates of pay or working conditions for a period of six months, this matter being handled by means of authorized committees representing all in- terests. We are, therefore, not in a position to deal with any new organization or to consider its demands so long as it remain out of our service. “We hope that in a short time the wise counsel of our more experienced men will prevail and the men will return to work with confidence that their interests will be properly cared for by the duly authorized ma- chinery. Meanwhile their actions here and elsewhere are doing great damage to the interests of their or- ganizations and organized labor in general, as the pub- lie cannot but appreciate that if members of the oldest and most dependable of labor organizations, namely, the railroad brotherhoods, are not willing to abide by their contracts, there is little that can be expected of organized labor in the future. No Occasion for Strikes “The recognized leaders and representatives of men in train service have declared that no occasion for strike exists and that none has been legally author- ized. Men will be hired to fill the places vacated as fast as those of suitable qualifications present them- selves.” Prior to this disturbance conditions in the steel in- dustry were rapidly stabilizing. Only two of 25 blast furnaces in the Mahoning Valley were idle, one of which has been down for a year and a half, and coal and coke supplies were approaching normal again. The Youngs- town Sheet & Tube Co. had five of its six stacks in blast and was preparing to light the sixth at Hubbard. Five of its six batteries of by-product coke ovens were producing coke, while 431 of 533 by-product ovens in the Valley were active. It is estimated, however, that 5000 men were idle half of March because of inade- quate car supplies in this territory. There was little diminution at the end of the week in the piled tonnage of finished output, which approximated 140,000 tons. Very Few Sales Sheet mills, which consume a’small amount of fuel in comparison with the steel plants, will fare better from the operating and production standpoint than any other units. Despite this fact, though, output will be more or less limited, which means that makers will be more restricted than ever in considering new business. Practically the only sales in the past 10 days have been resales, negotiated through brokers, where the buyer wanted urgent delivery. It is certain there will be a large carry-over of rollings from the second to the third quarter. In the past two weeks there has been a notice- able decline in inquiries for heavy tonnages of finished steel of all grades, for which reasonably prompt de- livery was expected. Fire recently did about $25,000 damage in the core department, Eastern Malleable Iron Co., Naugatuck, Conn., branch. H i? i rf mare nee ' age Taretin raved es = spall 1094 Cast-Iron Planer Bed Electrically Welded Cast iron offers many difficulties to the welder and some of the difficulties are incident to the design of the parts welded rather than to the cast iron itself. The welding of the planer bed shown in the accom- panying illustration is interesting on account of the fact that the weld had to be made without ap- preciable distortion of the parts, and the joint had to be finished so that the weld could not be readily detected. The planer bed was 20 ft. long, weighed approxi- mately 12 tons, and was part of a 60 x 60-in. planer. It was broken into two parts approximately in the middle. The line of the break was 84 in. and the weld- ing was done from both the inside and the outside, making an external welding line of 168 in. In doing this work it was first necessary to as- semble the parts in exact alignment and position. This THE IRON AGE a April 15 {) Metal Trades Meeting Next Week Shop representation bids fair to come in spicuous attention at the annual meeting of t} tional Metal Trades Association, Wednesday and day, April 21 and 22, at the Hotel Astor. Fj dresses on the question, “What Is Shop Repr tion?” are scheduled for the morning session of 1 day and a general discussion is to follow. Th: dresses are to be given by the following: A. M. \ International Harvester Co., Chicago; L. R. C| Deere & Co., Moline, Ill.; C. S. Ching, United s Rubber Co., New York; Robert E. Newcomb, D Steam Pump Co., a subsidiary of the Worthi: Pump & Machinery Co., Holyoke, Mass., and R. G Phillips, American Multigraph Co., Cleveland. At the Thursday afternoon session an analysis of the report of the President’s industrial conference A Break 84 In. in Length Was Electrically Welded in This Cast-Iron Planer Bed Without Appreciable Distortion. The parts were drawn together with screws in a large clamp was done by setting up two long inverted V’s and lay- ing the planer bed upside-down on these V’s, then the parts were drawn together with screws in a large clamp. Having cut out the joint with air tools the welding was done according to usual practice, using a steel pencil and special steel reinforcing plates. When finished the exterior surface was ground flush with that of the original casting. Chalk was put on for the purpose of photographing. The absence of distortion after welding, it is stated, was evidenced by the fact that the ways were in per- fect alignment when the job was completed; and a spiral gear with its bearings, located in the middle right adjacent to the weld, was also in perfect alignmnt. The strength was tested at two different times, first when the welding was about two-thirds done it was necessary to turn over the bed. This was accomplished by putting a sling around the middle at the weld and hoisting, which put the maximum strain of the weight of the bed on the weld. During the operation of turn- ing over, the bed was dropped some 3 or 4 in. on the floor and was bumped around considerably, all of which put excessive strains on the partially completed weld, and yet there was no sign of weakness. The work was done for the Lidgerwood Mfg. Co. by the Electric Welding Co. of America, Brooklyn, N. Y. For accommodation of its workers the Struthers Furnace Co., Cleveland, will erect a pressed brick build- ing to house locker and washrooms, at its plant in Struthers, Mahoning county. It will have facilities for 160 men. Walter Drew, National Erectors Association, New York, is announced. At this session, which is the last, will be given the various convention committee reports, and officers for the ensuing year will be elected. The first session of the meeting proper, following the gathering on Tuesday of the members of the ad ministrative council of the association, will be held on Wednesday morning, April 21, 9.30 a. m. The r ports of the officers form the main part of the program and will be made by President John W. O’Leary, Treasurer Frank C. Caldwell, Commissioner John D Hibbard and Secretary Homer D. Sayre. At this session a report of the committee on industrial educa- tion is to be made by Harold C. Smith, chairman, ana by Philip C. Molter, superintendent department of i: dustrial education. At the session on Wednesday afternoon, 2 p. m., the program includes the following addresses: “The Closed Shop Press,” by E. N. McCone, general manager Bu/- falo Commercial, Buffalo, and “Immigration and Labor,” by Dr. Richard H. Waldo, Inter-Racial Counc! New York. Addresses are to be made by Samuel V Dunn, editor Railway Age, Chicago, and George § Roberts, National City Bank, New York. The banquet will be held as usual on Wednesda} evening. Journeymen sheet metal workers at Youngstown, Ohio, have signed an agreement with the Master Sheet Metal Workers’ Association for a rate of $1.12 pe hour, an increase of 22%c. over the 1919-20 scale. The new contract will extend for one year from May 1. British and French War Effort in Steel Shell Steel One-third the Total in Great Britain—Large Use of Scrap —The Policy of Government Subsidies (Special Correspondence) LONDON, March 17.—A paper on “The Iron and Steel rades During the War,” was read before the Royal tatistical Society in London on March 16 by M. S. Birkett, O.B.E., who is the statistical officer of the National Federation of Iron and Steel Manufacturers. it contains much valuable information regarding the evelopments of the industry during the war and gives . good idea of the present position from the standpoint of ability to meet international competition. Some par- ticulars are also given concerning the iron and steel trades of the United States and France. An abstract s presented below: Great Britain’s Decline and Partial Recovery It is well known that before the war Great Britain had been ousted from the premier position in the pro- duction of iron and steel, and occupied only the third place, the first and second places being occupied re- spectively by the United States and Germany. From having contributed 52 per cent of the world’s pro- duction of pig iron in the quinquennium 1871-1875, as against the United States’ 18 per cent and Ger- many’s 15 per cent, Great Britain’s proportion had fallen to 21.8 per cent in the quinquennium 1901-1905, compared with the United States’ 45.5 per cent and Germany’s 23.2 per cent. By 1913 Great Britain contributed only 14 per cent of the total to 40 per cent by the United States and 25 per cent by Ger- many. Nearly half the production of pig iron was made from imported ores, which was rendered pos- sible by the existence near the seaports of large coal fields. Although in certain lines Great Britain had lost her former supremacy (for instance, her share of the total world’s export trade in rails dropped from 72 per cent in 1884 to 32 per cent in 1913), she was still nearly the largest exporter of iron and steel in the world the 1913 figures being for Great Britain 5,049,000 tons, Germany 5,664,000 tons and the United States 2,746,000 tons. Her tin plate trade, although very hard hit by the McKinley tariff of 1891, which caused her exports of tin plates to fall gradually from 148,000 tons in 1891 to 251,000 tons in 1898, managed to weather the storm, and subsequently made a re- markable recovery, so that by 1913 the exports amounted to 494,000 tons, and in addition a huge ex- port trade in galvanized sheets had been built up, amounting in 1913 to 762,000 tons. As in most industries so in iron and steel the year 1913 was a boom year. The output of pig iron at- tained 10,260,000 tons—a figure never reached either before or since—while the production of steel ingots and castings amounted to 7,664,000 tons, a figure higher by 867,000 tons than that of the year before, which was the previous best, though one which later was considerably exceeded as the result of the efforts of the steel production department of the Ministry of Munitions. Prices, too, were good; to quote only two examples, the ascertained price of Cleveland pig iron averaged £3 per ton, the highest figure recorded since 1900 (when it was £3 8s 1d.) and steel plates <i 2s 7d, again the highest since 1900, when it was ‘7 19s. Exports of iron and steel and manufactures thereof reached the record figures of 5,049,000 tons. Early War Period There was evidence towards the end of the year, however, that the period of prosperity was passing and giving place to a period of comparative depres- sion. At the outbreak of war this general downward tendency for a time was accentuated, for although German competition had been eliminated the large export trade was severely handicapped and the home trade uncertain. No one realized that the war was likely to last so long, and certainly steel makers did not realize how much the result would ultimately de- pend upon the steel resources of the country. In the autumn Government and Allied orders began to come forward in large quantities, a big home trade soon developed, and the efficient work of the British navy enabled foreign trade slowly to improve. The scar- city of tonnage which was felt towards the end of the year led to big orders for shipbuilding material being placed so that at the close of the year not only were the works extremely busy, but they were begin- ning to feel the shortage of labor due to the enlist- ment of so many men for the army, and representa- tions were made to the Government that the supply of munitions would suffer if further recruiting from steel works took place. Shell Steel The first problem was obviously shell steel. Be- fore the war only six firms had experience of this kind of steel and the specifications were rather se- vere. The steel department early set about stand- ardizing the various sections for each caliber of shell and fixing a standard weight for each mark. As the demand for shells and consequently for steel increased, the specifications had to be made less strict. Makers who had been accustomed to make shell steel prior to the war placed their experience at the disposal of other makers and the number of firms making shell steel rose from six to 60, and the production of shell steel increased as shown in the following table, in gross tons: Average Average Weekly Weekly 1915, 4th quarter.... 20,300 1916, 4th quarter.... 35,000 1916, Ist quarter.... 28,500 1917, Ist quarter.... 35,600 1916, 2nd quarter.... 34,500 1917, 2nd quarter.... 36,300 1916, 3rd quarter.... 34,000 At one time nearly a third of the ingot output of the country was going into shell steel, but even this was insufficient for the huge shell program, and shell steel had to be imported from America and Canada. After the second quarter of 1917 the increasing demand for ships and other munitions made it neces- sary to reduce the output of shell steel, and to rely to a greater extent on the United States and on the stocks of finished shell, forgings and shell steel, which had by this time been accumulated. Incidentally, it may be remarked that the insistence on a specially high quality of steel for the manufacture of shells has led to a great improvement in the quality of steel manufactured throughout the country. The pro- portion of the rejections in American shell steel was much higher than that of the British steel makers. Much Scrap Used One of the interesting features was the increased use of scrap. The shortage of pig iron made it necessary that scrap should be used to a greater extent than hitherto, and it was suggested to the steel makers that 50 per cent of their charge might be of scrap iron or steel. No precise information is available as to the proportions of scrap used before the war, but it is generally considered that on the average it did not exceed 30 per cent of the charge and was often much lower. To insure that scrap should be used to a greater extent, steel makers were requested to render monthly statements showing the proportions of scrap used during the month. These returns were critically examined, and where the proportion was low the firm was requested to use a higher proportion. When the first returns were received the average proportion of scrap used was shown to be about 34 per cent. This proportion was gradually increased until a percentage of 47 was reached, an equivalent saving of 750 tons of pig iron for the same ingot output. Such a high 1095 H i er tna nee em ear ee ee Kate Sein + 2 og ~ natin 3 e 2 = om Re- Sache 8 cen oo ee ee ee ee al 1096 proportion was rendered possible by the accumulations of steel turnings from the shell shops; in fact, steel makers were at first unable to absorb such large quan- tities as were available and pressure was exerted on pig iron manufacturers to utilize them in the blast furnaces. When the accumulations had been exhausted the current scrap resulting from shell turnings was in- sufficient, and the assistance of the salvage department of the Ministry of Munitions was invoked to obtain the scrap material that lay waste throughout the coun- try. The demand for scrap became so acute and prices rose so considerably that it was necessary to bring the price of scrap under control, Blast Furnace Extensions In July, 1916, a program of blast furnace exten- sions was laid down. This program arranged for re- pair, relining or additional plant to be undertaken at 41 furnaces then out of blast and the building of 10 new furnaces. The estimated capacity of the 51 furnaces was about 38,000 tons weekly, or rather less than 2,000,000 tons a year. This program was almost equally divided between hematite and basic pig iron. By September, 16 of these furnaces were already in blast and producing at the rate of 450,000 tons per annum, nearly all of which was hemitate, and 22 ad- ditional blast furnaces were contemplated, of which 10 were new. ‘The 57 furnaces still to come into op- eration were estimated to produce about 2,250,000 tons per annum, of which 56 per cent was hematite. By March, 33 of the furnaces arranged for had come into blast and were producing at the rate of 900,000 tons per annum, three-quarters of which was hema- tite and the number of furnaces still to come into op- eration numbered 56, estimated to produce about 2,- 625,000 tons per annum, of which 52 per cent was hematite. Thus, up to this date, a total number of 89 furnaces had been arranged for, with an esti- mated capacity of about 3,500,000 tons per annum The fact that in spite of all these efforts, the out- put of pig iron during the war never attained the record output which was reached in 1913 was largely due to difficulties of vessel tonnage and labor. The tonnage difficulty led to the abandonment of part of the hematite program, and necessitated concentrating on the basic side of the program, with its consequent dislocation of arrangements at many blast furnaces and steel works and its greater demand upon labor, transport, fuel, and other materials. To increase the production of basic iron it was necessary to increase the production of home phosphoric ores. For this purpose, a Home Ore Supply Committee was set up early in March and a special section of the Ministry of Munitions formed for the purpose of (a) increasing as far as possible the production of basic pig iron to compensate for, and if possible to exceed, the extent to which the hematite production would be deficient owing to reduced imports of Spanish ore, and (b) to arrange for the conversion of sufficient acid steel furnaces to basic to utilize the basic pig iron. On investigation 36 furnaces were found suffi- ciently favorably situated as regards transport, etc., to make it worth while to install the necessary plant and machinery to enable them to produce basic pig iron. These furnaces had a weekly capacity of about 18,000 tons. There were, in addition, 16 new furnaces in course of construction which had been previously sanctioned, and which were expected to reach the maximum output of 14,000 tons per week. When the Home Ore Supply Committee was formed the weekly output of basic pig iron was slightly less than 48,000 tons. The maximum production was reached in the week ending May 5, 1918, when 65,530 tons were produced. Of the increase about 10,000 tons was due to the operation of the new blast fur- naces, and the remainder to old furnaces brought into blast. The failure to increase by as much as 32,000 tons weekly, which was the amount aimed at, was due to difficulties of obtaining sufficient labor. The following table shows the production of Brit- ish pig iron throughout the war. It shows that the production of basic pig iron increased from 2,000,000 THE IRON AGE April 15, 192 tons in 1914 to little less than 3,000,000 tons in 19) an increase of nearly 50 per cent, and that the p. portion of basic to total pig iron produced, which } been 22 per cent in 1914, was 338 per cent in 19) The increase /in basic pig iron was wholly at the « pense of forge and foundry, which dropped from 369,000 tons in 1914 to 2,301,000 tons in 1918, 1 maximum weekly output attained during the wa was 191,000 tons in the week ending May 5, 19] Output of Pig Iron in Great Britain, 1913-1918—Gross To Forge and Hematite Basic Foundry Alloys Tot: 1913 ....... 3,604,823 2,529,800 3,801,547 324,145 10,260 Proportion % 35 25 37 3 100 COAG. sss ens 3,225,403 2,002,500 3,369,516 326,354 8923.77 Proportion % 36 22 38 1 100 1915 ....... 3,564,276 2,272,684 2,701,215 255,484 8,793.6 Proportion % 10 26 31 d 100 Lene sine dice 4,042,014 2,290,549 2,423,575 291,845 9,047.95 Proportion % 45 25 27 3 100 BOAT <senxt nea 3,291,927 2,722,791 2,378,870 298,190 9,$21,77: Proportion % 42 29 26 3 100 1918 ....... 3,556,748 2,986,827 2,301,802 240,975 9,086.3 Proportion % 39 33 25 3 100 when, as previously stated, the basic output con tributed 65,530 tons. New Steel Capacity Steel works extensions were also planned to raise the total increase in productive capacity by 5,000 000 tons per annum, estimated to bring the total capacity of the country up to over 12,000,000 tons. It may be recalled that the departmental committee of the Board of Trade which sat in 1916 recommended an increase in steel capacity up to 15,000,000 ingot tons. The production of basic steel as a result of the de- velopment in the ore supply was increased from 71,- 500 tons weekly, when the Home Ore Supply Com- mittee was formed to a maximum of 104,800 in the week ending April 27, 1918. The output of steel ingots and castings shows a total for 1914 of 7,835,113 tons, and for 1918 of 9,- 539 439 tons. Production was at its maximum in the second quarter of 1918, when it was consistently at a rate of over 10,000,000 tons per annum. The maxi- mum attained in any one week amounted to 215,800 tons in the week ending March 9. Of the increase of 1,875,000 tons between 1913 and 1918, 1,744,000 tons was due to the increased output of basic steel. The proportions of acid and basic steel, which had been 63 per cent and 37 per cent respectively in 1913, became in 1918 51 per cent and 49 per cent respec- tively. For purposes of allocation, the tonnage of fin- ished steel products obtainable from a given output of ingots, was taken at 75.per cent. The author deals in some detail both with the methods of allocation and price control. Pig Iron, Steel and Coke Subsidies In the case of both pig iron and coke, after one or two increases in the maximum price, the subsidy principle was resorted to. The amount of the sub- sidies varied with different producers—in the case of coke for instance, the opportunity was taken to in- vestigate the relation between costs and selling prices. In cases where it was found that the makers were earning substantial profits, the amount of the sub- sidy given was less than the increased cost, thus throw- ing upon the makers themselves such part of the in- crease as they could afford to meet. By adopting the subsidy method an economy was effected which would have been impossible to secure if the maximum prices had been raised, as under this method the Government contribution was restricted to the amount necessary in cases of good or average efficiency, and the higher rate which might otherwise have been necessary to keep all the works in production was given only to a few firms where, owing to special circumstances, !t was impossible to make ends meet at the ordinary prices and subsidies. The control was gradually relaxed, but the effect of this on prices was not quite what was anticipated. The difference between the control price of pig iron and the published exvort price was, on the average, ril 15, 1920 10s. per ton, and the difference between the con- price of steel and the export price, £5 per ton. se amounts, therefore, can be taken to represent ximately the average amount of the subsidies each case, and the amount by which home prices id rise after removal of control unless costs of juction were reduced. So far from costs having reduced, however, they have continuously risen. French Iron and Steel \s in Great Britain, so in France the year 1913 i been the year of maximum production in iron and Pig iron production amounted to 5,207,000 tons crude. steel to 4,687,000 tons; pig iron having from 2,057,000 tons in 1892 to 4,038,000 tons in i0, and steel from 1.600,000 tons in 1892 to 3,413,- 0 tons in 1910. France was thus the fourth steel ducing country of the world, her production being exceeded only by the United States, Great Britain and Germany. Again, as in Great Britain, production was falling in the early part of 1914—the production of iron in the first half year being only 2,449,000 ms and of steel, 2,298,500 tons. Then came the gen- ral decree of August 4, calling to the colors more than 20 classes and paralyzing the industry. The works lost at one blow 67 per cent of their personnel. Directors, engineers, managers and work people left for the Army, so that the management as well as the work people was disorganized. It was necessary to econstitute the shifts with the older work people who were not affected by the mobilization, but even in the districts farthest removed from the theater of war imerous blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills vere stopped because of the lack of personnel and raw naterial. In addition to this the result of the battles n the autumn of 1914 allowed the enemy to occupy and to retain for more than four years almost the whole of the industrial area of the north and east. Blast Furnace Increase In July, 20 blast furnaces (a quarter of those which remained), were put in blast, and in the second half of 1915, 20 others were lit, and 10 more were ready for lighting. A similar activity marked the manufacture of steel, and in January, 1916, 97 Martin furnaces were working, 15 or 20 others were ready for working, and 35 new furnaces were in course of construction. Production was increased not only by bringing into operation blast furnaces which, for vari- ous reasons, had been idle for several years, but an mpetus was given to the creation of new means of production, and the new blast furnaces which were com- pleted during the war, or in course of construction at the cessation of hostilities, corresponded to an increased capacity of 590,000 tons. As regards steel, the number of furnaces con- structed and put into operation during the war, or ‘n course of construction at its close, together with the percentage increase over the numbers existing in the non-invaded area, are as follows: Number Increase Per Cent Martin furmacel a. ieieeti ase 109 94 Convertem®: cs 2k <u s0 avaaen eaten 56 114 CYUCHIGE. os sues ele ewan: owed 1,280 105 S1OCtri® IUIMMOON iicvtcecaeies 18 75 Excluding those new plants destined to replace Ider ones, these furnaces represent a net increase in capacity of 1,760,000 tons. We have seen that the capacity left to France on the 1913 basis was 1,871,- 00 tons of pig iron and 1968,000 tons of steel, and that this was augmented in the way just described; actual production, however, fell far below capacity, and even at its maximum in October, 1917, corres- ponded to an annual rate of only 1,813,000 tons of pig iron and 2,398,000 tons of steel. French Steel Production The total French production of steel from 1913 was as follows: Ihe so eae’ 4,686,866 tons 1916 “tr ae 1,951,892 tons 14, Isthalf.. 2,298,509 tons NOES soos + 14 2.231.651 tons 1,807,931 tons 357.345 tons BORE ss ws tabbed 1,087,700 tons THE IRON AGE 1097 In 1914 France had 164 open-hearth furnaces, 100 converters, 24 electric furnaces and 125 crucibles. The occupation of the regions of the north and east de- prived France, during the whole war, of 48 open- hearth furnaces, 53 converters, and 38 crucibles, re- ducing the production of crude steel, as has already been said, by 58 per cent. At the end of 1918, there were under construction in the steel works 8 convert- ers, 41 open-hearth furnaces, 117 crucibles, and 11 electric furnaces. Adding these, France should now possess 103 converters, 225 open-hearth furnaces, 2,- 497 crucibles, and 42 electric furnaces. Post-War Position The restoration of Lorraine gives France the fol- lowing capacity for production: Production in Millions of Tons of Deficiency Iron Coal Ore Pig Iron Steel in Coal France, 1913..... ‘ 40 22 9.2 4.7 22 France and Alsace-Lorraine ....... 44 13 9.1 7.0 30 France and Alsace- Lorraine and Saar.. so 13 10.5 9.0 22 From this it will be seen that the French capacity for production has about doubled, but that the de- ficiency in coal remains about the same. Production has, however been severely handicapped by shortage of labor and fuel and railway congestion. French Pig Iron and Steel in 1919 France’s production of pig iron for the first half of 1919 (the latest period for which figures are avail- able), amounted to only 1,009,000 tons, to which Al- sace-Lorraine contributed 450,700 tons, or 45 per cent, and the north and east 144,000 tons, or 14 per cent— less even than the rate of production in 1918. The production of steel for the same period amounted to only 1,004,500 tons, to which Alsace-Lorraine con- tributed 332,000 tons, or 32 per cent, and the Center 283,000 tons, or 28 per cent. Ame