The Iron Age 1919-12-18: Vol 104 Iss 25

December 18, 1919 ESTABLISHED 1855 Whe GOP) 7 Whe Wit) Vie Vl VOL. 104: Ne 25 Iron and Steel Resources of Russia ' Past and Future Needs—Capacity for Iron and Steel Production— Location and Size of Ore Deposits ATA on estimated large future requirements of D Russia for iron and steel products and the coun- try’s facilities for supplying the demand were given by P. Kovaloff, mining engineer, at a meeting of the Association of Russian Engineers for Relief of Russia, held some time ago in New York. Mr. Kovaloff for years was assistant director of a mining department in Russia and in this position had the opportunity to become thoroughly familiar with the country’s iron industry. The address is given largely in full below. Notwithstanding the rapid development of the iron industry in Russia during late years, especially from © Krivo: Roe Reserve of Iron Ore in Russia Based on Deposits Which Have Been Ex- plored and not including those in Po- land, have been estimated at 2,200,- 000,000 tons. These figures do not in- clude the immense deposits of poorer ores in the provinces of Riasan, Ka- luga, Nijni-Novgorod, Vladimir, Orel, Tula, Vologda, Viatka, and Olenetz. The iron ore deposits in Ural Moun- tains are estimated at 400,000.000 tons. 1909 to 1913, when the yearly output of pig iron increased from 3,240,000 tons to 5,040,000 tons; the amount of iron consumed per capita in Russia was considerably behind that of the other European coun- tries. While for Germany this amount was 319.8 Ib., for Great Britain 269.1 lb., and France 245.7 Ib., the corresponding figure for Russia, even in the record year, was only 62.4 lb. The reason for this was the slow development of industries in general; little activ- ity in railroad building, and particularly the insuffi- cient buying power of the general masses. A comparison of the consumption of iron per capita oVelogda oViatke Oni jni -Novgorod Ss Ma eel peo eee Filipe 3 ms re wo aR ch ee: UR ee Fore 1248 THE IRON AGE in Russia with that in other countries gives an idea of that iron hunger which the country felt constantly. The occasional crises of the iron industry were caused not by overproduction, but by the absence in the gen- eral masses of the means wherewith to buy. Increased Requirements Foreseen At the present time there are all the prerequisites for a change in the’situation. First of all, the state of prosperity of the rural population has consider- ably improved. Farm products, though in meagre quantities, still continue to go into cities at high prices. With the re-establishment of the circulation of mer- chandise the demand of the rural population for the products qf the iron and steel industry will be an entirely different one from that observed previously. The repairs to worn-out farming equipment coupled with the demand for new and improved imp‘ements will call for an enormous quantity of iron and steel. An increased demand must also be expected from industries. The redistribution of the population, accom- panied by the large flow to undeveloped parts of Rus- sia, particularly Siberia, will necessarily cause the establishment of new industrial enterprises, whose requirements will be far in excess of the normal demand. On the railroads’ part, there is foreseen a much larger demand than existed before the war. A develop- ment at the rate of 5000 versts (3314 miles) of new lines a year presents itself as an urgent necessity with- out which any improvement in the economic situation of Russia is unthinkable. Also enormous quantities of steel will be required for the replacement of rails and rolling stock. City building had been almost entirely stopped dur- ing the war. The population of the small cities in Central Russia, as well as the city population of Siberia and of other regions not occupied by Bolshe- viks, has considerably increased, mainly on account of the refugees. It must be expected, therefore, that an intense building activity will take place in these cities as soon as an opportunity presents itself. This again will create a demand in excess of that of normal times. These general considerations lead to the conclusion that with the restoration of communication and trans- portation the demand for iron and steel will consider- ably exceed that of the years preceding the war. Now, let us look to the extent this demand can be met by Russian iron and steel industries. First, let us consider the deposits of iron ore. In this respect the situation is more than satisfactory. The general reserve of iron ore in Russia, not including Poland, has been estimated by the Russian Geological Survey in 1910 at 2,200,000,000 tons, which corresponds to 900,- 000,000 tons of pig iron (the maximum yearly output of iron ore in Russia does not exceed 9,000,000 tons). These figures of the iron ore reserve are much too low, as they include only the iron ore reserves in certain deposits which have been explored and estimated. For the immense expanse of Siberia, which has been very little explored for ores, the deposits have been esti- mated at only 27,000,000 tons. This, certainly does not represent the actual deposits of Siberia. The extent to which this circumstance influences the calculated amount is indicated by the fact that the explorations made in 1912-1914 of the iron ore deposits in the Ural Mountains have raised the figure of the iron ore reserves for Ural, calculated in 1910, from 282,000,000 tons to almost 400,000,000 tons, or more than 40 per cent. Also the figures for the general reserve of iron ore have not included the poorer ores, containing less than 40 per cent of iron. However, with time the exhaus- tion of the world’s iron deposits will, doubtless, lead to new developments which will permit of the profitable smelting of such ores. This latter consideration in figuring for centuries must certainly be given atten- tion, particularly when we consider that in the Cen- tral and Northern Russian provinces of Riasan, Kaluga, Nijni-Novgorod, Vladimir, Orel, Tula, Vologda, Viatka and Olonetz, the low percentage iron ore is widely dis- tributed. Therefore, the stores of iron ore in Russia are more than sufficient to supply the needs of the domestic mar- December 18, 191» ket, no matter how colossal these may be. Therei: lies our advantage over the neighboring Europea: countries, as for instance, Germany and France, wh: are compelled even now to base their calculations o: the exploiting of low grade Lorraine ores. The presence of coal at or within the reach of the ore deposits will determine the centers of development. Later, when considering the iron regions separately, this question will be dealt with more in detail. It should be noted, however, that with an adequate devel- opment of the railroads the stores of fuel are more than sufficient for the development of the iron ore resources of Russia, no matter how intensively this development is carried on. Capacity for Iron and Steel Production In order to make clear to what extent existing equipment is able to meet the demands of the domestic market for iron and steel, the figures for the produc- tion of these plants for 1913 are given below: Tons PigIron Iron and Steel NR eee 3,420,000 2,538,000 MD ie wok ca’e ciate ie re ee 1,008,000 738,000 Central and North Russia.. 216,000 666,000 ee ee eee 4,644,000 3,942,000 In addition to this tonnage there was imported from. abroad 36,000 tons of pig iron and 504,000 tons of wrought iron and steel, rolled and in products. Of the last item machines, apparatus, parts, etc., totaled 342,000 tons. The total consumption in 1913: was, therefore: INE ody ak wi wo de io el i oc eal 4,680,000 tons Nf | eas ee 4,446,000 tons In order to show how much the iron output of the plants was below their capacity that year, data on the- blast furnaces that were operating, idle and in process: of construction, are given below: Under con- Operating Idle struction: ee 50 11 5 | ESE er ree 73 52 1 Central and North Russia... 17 29 ae Es 5.4% (Ode ae Reed 140 92 6 The average output of one blast furnace for the year was; in tons: Ee a ee 69,822 WEE aka, Oh a Oars uta wae ane Ree oo eee ae 14,274 Central and North BRummia..... occ cccess cee 13,500 Allowing 10 per cent for furnaces out of blast, due: to repairs or for other reasons, we have the capacity of these furnaces when added to those under construc- tion in 1918, giving the following additional tonnage for that year. Average Total Idle Furnaces perfur- fur- fur-inopera- Output nace* naces naces ration of pig iron*® South Russia.... 69,822 16 7 9 628,398 ME sanabadu kes 14,274 53 13 40 570,960 Central and North Russia.. 13,500 29 5 24 324,000 NN ea tava kee ea 98 25 73 1,523,358 *Tons. Consequently, the existing equipment of the blast furnaces brings the smelting capacity to approximately 6,000,000 tons, which would exceed the maximum of production reached up to this time by almost 30 per cent. To work this tonnage into wrought iron and steel will present no difficulties, because the output of the rolling mills was below their capacity to a con- siderably greater degree than was that for the blast furnaces. Taking into consideration the imports from abroad in 1913, it is found that the output of iron for the domestic market can still be increased above the quan- tity absorbed in 1913 by 791,000 tons, or approximately 18 per cent on the condition that none is imported. Means for Increasing the Output Of course, the extra 791,000 tons of iron. and steel will not meet the acute need which will exist for many years. Therefore, there is the necessity of finding other means for meeting this demand, viz: Importing from abroad, developing existing regions, and opening new regions. December 18, 1919 Importing does not appear to be the most desir- able from the standpoint of the country’s economics in general, and in view of the existing unsettled condi- tion would be accompanied with great difficulties. It will, however, have to be resorted to in the beginning, exclusively for procuring machinery, implements for farming and railroad equipment. The importation of other iron and steel products would be, in view of the present conditions, a luxury which cannot be afforded. Developing existing regions and opening new regions present the most attractive solution from an economic standpoint, and no effort should be spared in these di- rections as the period of reconstruction and rehabilita- tion of the country’s industries is now exceedingly favor- able. Before the war the development of certain regions was held back by the limited capacity of the market and by the rivalry and the competition of the separate regions who were striving to control the market. Now the situation is totally changed, and the market cannot be saturated for many years. Under such conditions private initiative and enterprise invested in the iron and steel industry will bring rich returns, without any worries about the disposition of the manufactured prod- ucts. Russian capital, whatever of it that will be salvaged after the Bolshevik calamity is over, as well KouzNnierznt Basin > Exieastousnxy . Coa! ts Tecees ~ @ KARRARALINGK "EP pe, THE IRON AGE Deposits of Iron Ore in Siberia Have Been Very Little Explored but Are Estimated at 27,000,000 Tons. Ore 1249 this period have dispersed all such doubts. At the present time the reserve of ore unmined in Krivoi Rog is estimated at over 400,000,000 tons, and every year new ore-beds are discovered. As a supplementary supply for southern plants, there is the reserve of about 500,000,000 tons of ores on the peninsula Kertch. These deposits, though poorer in iron, about 40 per cent, are in thicker and larger strata, which would allow of power excavation. These ores could be melted mixed with those of Krivoi Rog. Regarding the deposits of coking coals in the region of Donietz basin, the apprehensions lest they become rapidly exhausted were based, apparently, on the con- siderations that they have been most intensively mined. The Russian Geological Survey of these regions, how- ever, disperses these fears. Out of the total deposits of the pit coal of this region, which are more than 565,- 000,000,000 tons, the share of the coals, belonging to groups I-IV of Gruener’s scale, including the coking coals, is about 18,000,000,000 tons. If we compare this with the fact that since the discovery of the Donietz coal region the total quantity of these coals mined is estimated at not over 300,000,000 tons, which is less than 2 per cent of the aggregate quantity of the de- posits, it is clear that the time to speak of the exhaus- @Usr Kurs 1COLAEVSHY ) © > \we ( Minuz inn CHEREMMOYSK~ ) Inxut$« deposits at Magnitnaia and other points in South Ural are cut off from the railroads which are necessary to connect them with coal deposits at Ekibastousky and pit coal at Kouznietzki basin. Large iron ore deposits have been found in the Kirghiz steppes, vicinity of the Uka and Angora rivers and in Maritime Province as foreign capital, will gladly invest, and consequently, the degree and the rapidity of the development of sepa- rate regions will be determined mainly by their nat- ural resources and by the growth of transportation facilities. Location of the Iron Regions Let us consider from this viewpoint two principal iron manufacturing regions, South Russia and Ural. The central and northern regions are not considered because of the impossibility of working on a large scale the local low-percentage ores, the beds of which are so distributed that they permit of working only on a small scale and in a more or less primitive way. These are sources for local markets only. In South Russia is the largest region of the iron industry in Russia. It furnished in 1913 about 3,420,000 tons of pig iron and 2,538,000 of wrought iron and steel. Regarding the deposits of ores in the region Krivoi Rog, on which the whole southern region is mainly dependent, there was much apprehension 10 years ago because these deposits at that time were estimated at several tens of millions of tons, which with the steadily increasing yearly mining, reaching in 1913 7,000,000 tons, would secure a supply of ore to the southern plants for not more than 10 years. Never- theless ,the southern region since that time has been working 10 years, and the explorations made during tion of the coke deposits in the Donietz region has not yet arrived. Of all the iron regions, the South Russian region has the best developed railroads. This fact, coupled with the use of mineral fuel for smelting, enables this region to develop production rapidly. That is the reason production of pig iron from 1910 to 1913 in South Russia increased from 2,268,000 tons to 3,348,000 tons, an average yearly increase of 270,000 tons. This places the South Russian iron producing region in a particularly important position as a source of supply during the first stages of reconstruction. The Riches of the Ural Region The second place in importance ag to the develop- ing of the iron industry belongs to the Ural region, which in 1913 supplied 1,000,000 tons of pig iron and 738,000 tons of wrought iron and steel. With regard to iron ores this region is exceptionally wealthy, hav- ing in abundance remarkably pure and easily fusible ores, the deposits being estimated at nearly 400,000,000 tons. The vast stretches in South and North Ural are still unexplored, and the geological data give grounds to the belief that further prospecting explora in these parts will lead to a discovery of new deposits. With regard to fuel, the Ural region is not so favor. ably situated. The deposits of coking coals which could be utilized in the Ural region have not yet been dis- Pens 3 FAP TE asa a AT HE wv Aum a 1250 THE IRON AGE covered, and this region is smelting exclusively with wood. This fact, im connection with the remarkable purity of Ural ores, produces pig iron of qualities par- ticularly adapted for manufacturing high grades of steel, with which Swedish pig iron only can compete. The necessity of smelting with wood, however, is a drawback, as this limits production to the forest growth and does not allow of production on a large scale; also the efficiency of charcoal blast furnaces is considerably below that of coke furnaces. The average produc- tivity of the Ural blast furnaces in 1913 was 14,274 tons, while for South Russia it was 69,822 tons, almost five times greater. Insufficient railroad facilities in Ural also hinders what should be a large development to correspond to the natural mineral wealth of this region. Some plants on the eastern siopes of Central Ural, which are pro- vided with less ores than the others, were compelled to curtail their production, while the richest deposits of magnetite of the mountain Magnitnaia in South Ural estimated at 37,500,000 tons, remained almost un- touched as the result of not having rail facilities, and only at the time of the war was a line undertaken to connect with the Samara-Slatoust Railroad. The rich Komarovsky and Zigazinski deposits, and a number of other deposits in South Ural, also remain cut off from the railroads. A line built from Magnitnaia to the town Sterlitamak would provide all of these deposits with an outlet and would call to life many new iron and steel plants. Therefore, under the circumstances, Ural is not in a position to develop its preduction as rapidly as South Russia. If we consider this same 4-yr. period of ex- ceedingly favorable market conditions, 1910 to 1913, we see that while South Russia had increased its yearly output of pig iron in that period by 1,080,000 tons, for Ural the increase in 1913 as against 1910 was only 306,000 tons, but as against 1900 the year of the pre- ceding maximum production of 900,000 tons, was only 108,000 tons. Consequently, all that we can expect from Ural to start with would be the renewal of the activity of the idle blast furnaces, and an increase of output of 500,000 to 600,000 tons above the output of 1913. Such an increase would be altogether out of propor- tion to the demands which could be made upon this region. The way out of this situation would be to smelt Ural ores with the coking coals of Western Siberia, which would permit of developing the industry on a large scale. When the South Siberian line is com- pleted and is developed eastward until it connects with the Kolchougin branch it will undoubtedly be the turn- ing point in the history of the Ural iron industry. Then the iron ore deposits of South Ural will be con- nected with the Ekibastousky coal deposits and with the Kouznietzki pit coal basin which contains the coking coals; and the coal deposits in Kouznietzki basin alone are no smaller than those in Donietz basin, and probably are considerably greater. The proper development of the railroads of the Ural, as well as of the lines connecting this region with the West Siberian coal deposits, will enable Ural to show the same froportion of growth in production as has been observed in South Russia. The Regions of Siberia and Caucasus An appearance of new regions of iron industry must be expected in the remote districts of Russia, in Siberia and in Caucasus. Immediately preceding the war there was no iron industry in these districts at all. In 1875 the only iron manufacturing plant in Caucasus, the Chatahsky iron plant, ceased to exist, and in 1911 the last of the Siberian plants, the Abakansky, had. been shut down. After the war started the Petrovsky plant, in Nerchinsky district, resumed activity on a small scale. Such a situation is due to the small capacity of the Siberian market and to the impossibility for these small Siberian plants, without railroad connec- tions, to compete with the firmly established regions of European Russia. The radical change in the situa- tion, as has been explained, has already set in. The Caucasus is poorer in iron ores than in copper, zinc, lead and silver ores. But it is noteworthy that December 18, 1519 with regard to iron this region has been very litile explored, although within the boundaries of the pro inces of Elizabetpol and of Kuban are found indica- tions of iron ores. Definite data have been obtained at the present time only regarding two deposits. One near Tiflis contains 1,000,000 tons of 60 per cent hema- tite; and the other, about 20 miles from Elizabetpo), « deposit of 60 per cent magnetite, estimated at 13,00v.- 000 tons. So considerable a deposit can serve ds a basis for a sizable plant. The coking coals in Caucasus up to this time have not been mined. However, they are found in a deposit estimated at over 200,000,000 tons near the Black Sea coast and about 25 miles from a railroad. A short rail- road branch would solve the problem of supplying coke for smelting the Caucasian ores. In Siberia several future centers of iron industry are indicated, provided with both ore and coking coal, the latter coming from the West Siberian coal deposits, particularly the Kouznietzki basin. At the south- eastern border of this basin are deposits of 68 per cent magnetite, estimated at 25,000,000 tons, which alone would be sufficient for large plants. Within the boundaries of the Kirghiz steppes north and south of Karkaralinsk, there are hematite and magnetite ores containing €0 to 63 per cent iron. The deposits are in the shape of thick ore bodies and seams which indicate that the size is considerable. Coke for smelting these ores can be obtained from Ekibastou- sky or Kouznietzki. On the eastern slopes of Kouznietzki Alatau and further east in the Minuzinsk steppe and to the east of the river Yenisei, there stretches a series of ore deposits, mostly magnetite. The best explored among these are: Abakanskoye with about 3,000,000 tons of 70 per cent magnetite, and Irbinskoye with about 8,000,- 000 tons of the same ore. A railroad, if built from Kouznietzki to Minuzinsk and extended to the north- east, would pass across the whole of these deposits and would make available Kouznietzki coke. In Irkoutskaya province deposits of 58 to 65 per cent magnetite stretch northward from the line of the Siberian Railroad along the river Angara and its trib- utary Uka. On these deposits there was founded in 1846 the Nicolaevsky plant, which ceased to operate in 1899. The amount of ore in four deposits that had been worked was estimated, as given above, at 3,000,- 000 tons. In the same region are also other deposits which have not been explored. Should a railroad be built between Tulun and Ust Kutsk, it would pass through this district and would make it possible vo smelt the ores of the Nicolaevsky district on Kouznietzki coke. Moreover, the position of the deposits along the river Angara admits a trans- portation of the ore down this river which approaches the Siberian Railroad near the Cheremhovsky coal dis- trict. Some coals of this district furnish the necessary coke. The cheapness of transportation by water and the proximity of the city Irkutsk indicate that the smelting of the Nicolaevsky ores will be concentrated in this district. On the Far East Coast a large center of the in- dustry is indicated in Maritime Province, near Olga Bay and St. Vladimir Bay, where a number of deposits of 60 per cent magnetite are known. The amount of ore in three of them, Bielogorsky, Vladimirsky and Mramorny Mys (Marble Cape) is estimated at about 6,000,000 tons. Therefore, though the Siberian iron-ore deposits are so far but little explored, still it is possible to indicate a number of regions where the appearance of an iron industry is likely in the not distant future. The whole northern part of Siberia is totally unexplored with re- gard to ores. . Nevertheless, in some localities the pres- ence of ore is an unquestionable fact, as for instance, in Yakutsk province where an iron industry exists in a primitive form among the Yakouts, who are smelting iron in wind-furnaces. The conelusions to be drawn from these facts are summarized in the following statements: 1.—With the re-establishment of the normal eco- nomic life in the country there will be at once created SS oS December 18, 1919 a demand for iron and steel products, a demand con- siderably exceeding the consumption before the war. 2?.—The natural resources of Russia consisting in the deposits of iron ores and of pit coal admit of a de- velopment that will meet the need, no matter how great. 3.—The present equipment of iron and steel plants permits of an increase in production of not more than 18 per cent of the consumption in 1913. 4.—A demand in excess of that of 19.3, in the first stage of reconstruction, can be satisfied only at the THE IRON AGE 1251 expense of the development of the South Russian plants and by imports from abroad. 5.—The development of the production of pig iron on a large scale in the Ural region is quite feasible after completing the South Siberian Railroad and build- ing some other railroads connecting Ural with coal de- , posits in western Siberia. 6.—At the present time the following centers of iron industry in Siberia are indicated: Karkaralinsk district, Telbes, Minusinsk district, Nicolaevsky district of Irkutsk Province, district in Maritime Province. British Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete Strength Slag Aggregate Experience in Eng- land—British and American Slags Compared HE use of crushed and screened blast-furnace slag in concrete is well known in this country and is attracting attention abroad. There are large slag dumps in the Middlesbrough district in England, and much slag is produced there every day. Dr. J. E. Stead, the well known English metallurgist, recently read a paper before the Cleveland Institution of Engineers entitled “Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete and Rein- forced Concrete.” The concrete foundations of very many large buildings and of machinery in that district have crushed blast-furnace slag as the aggregate, and wherever it has been necessary to remove such founda- tions no deterioration or disintegration has been found. British Examples of Slag Concrete The great breakwater at the mouth of the River Tees at South Gare is in part constructed of slag con- crete and stands as a monument to the value of slag as the aggregate in concrete. Huge slag concrete blocks have to be periodically placed round about the end of the pier to break the force of the waves. These are rolled about and in time get ground down by sheer at- trition. Specimens from these blocks varying from 6 to 17 years in use show no evidence of disintegration. The particles of slag aggregate are as sound as the binding matrix. Another sea pier is the one at the plant of the Skin- ningrove iron Co. finished in 1891, which was con- structed of a concrete consisting of fine granulated slag and 25 per cent slaked lime, sand from the beach and crushed slag as the aggregate. Samples broken off below high water mark show the concrete to be in good condition. One piece contains a lump of slag firmly cemented to the matrix, the corners of which are quite sharp. The concrete is almost as good after 30 years’ exposure as that taken from the large blocks after weathering 17 years. : Crombie & Son of Middlesbrough has had more ex- perience in the use of slag than any other firm in the district. Their annual average amount of crushed slag used in concrete for the 10 years up to 1914 has been about 10,000 tons. Quite recently they made 50 miles of reinforced covers for electric cable channels, with crushed slag as the aggregate. Since the war rein- forced concrete pit props have been made by them, also many of the buildings at the new coke ovens at the Redcar Iron Works are constructed of slag aggregate reinforced concrete. In addition they have supplied all sorts of reinforced slag concrete window sills, orna- mental house facings, stairs and landings, ete. Other concrete contractors have also used the same material in considerable quantities and it may be accepted that in the Middlesbrough district the use of reinforced slag concrete for almost every purpose is firmly established. In the discussion of the paper Mr. Crombie stated that in 40 years’ experience he had never found deterio- ration of steel in conerete. The best slag concrete he makes had been obtained from Cleveland ironstone slag and Portland cement containing only about 30 per cent lime. He specializes in floors and erection work where it is essential to have a hard aggregate and the best aggregate is clean slag free from dirt and scale, and by preference slag run into ladles and allowed to cool before tipping. Tests have shown slag concrete to stand nearly 40 per cent more strain than whinstone concrete. British and American Slags Compared Dr. Stead reviewed the recent literature on the sub- ject paying great attention to the papers and reports published in the United States. The analyses of the Cleveland hematite slags approximate very closely in composition those produced in our furnaces smelting Lake ores. The slags obtained from smelting Cleveland ironstone, owing to their high content of alumina and magnesia and low proportion of lime, have never been known to disintegrate on exposure to air and rain, and for that reason are at all times (whether weathered or not) perfectly suitable for concrete making. It is safe to use the slag as soon as it cools. Slag balls which have been exposed to the weather for 50 years show no signs of disintegration. The hematite slags do not dis- integrate except when the lime is increased to 50 per cent, but at that point they spontaneously desintegrate soon after they become cold. This is a phenomenon not due to weathering or the absorption of water or car- bonic acid from the air, but to a remarkable physical Combined water, Per Cent Outside layers, 4-in. pieces old slag........ 0.60 Inside portions, same pieces...........+e.s««-. 0.20 Outside layers of small pieces slag agegre- gate from concrete, South Gare Breakwater, exposed at least 30 years........... “os wae New slag in fine powder after being kept maciot 14 GOSG. .ccvcicesdsdbepcncesea comeses 0.35 Slag sand made by running liquid slag into WOE cccccccucwvercesbeversdscteeheaneses 0.20 The same slag sand after being moistened Wem Water 36 GOO cccuscesestoecdebeesoes 0.55 The same siag chilled on an iron plate, pow- dered and moistened for 14 days.......... 0.32 Slag brick concrete, Wood-Bodner process, after weatherittgl © MB. ccc cccctcanewccdends 9.50 The same after exposure in a wall for at Sane Be WOUEE « ab dose 0c bbeandhinsctanion 12.55 Limestone, whinstone and granite in powder after keeping moist for 14 days............ Nil change of some of the slag constituents. The molecules become rearranged and the mass simply falls to powder. It is this tendency of such slags to disintegrate which has led civil engineers to prescribe for concrete con- struction well-weathered material. It may be taken as proved that hematite slags which have been weathered for six months or more and have not fallen to powder are quite suitable for concrete con- struction. Greater Strength of Slag Aggregate A very interesting section of the paper is devoted to the question why blast-furnace slag aggregate makes stronger concrete than other aggregates. This has been found to be true here as the result of careful research. Dr. Stead’s explanation is that all crushed blast-fur- nace slags, excepting perhaps the siliceous slags from charcoal furnaces, on being exposed to moisture or liquid water become more or less hydrated on the sur- face. That such is the case has been proved by care- 1252 THE IRON AGE 4 & ; 5 8 —" OES ful examination of the aggregates of slag separated from very old concrete, and from slags removed from situations where they have been constantly damp for years. It is also proved by exposing finely powdered slag to water for even 14 days, for they chemically fix water in that short time. Some examples of this are given in the accompanying table. There can be little doubt that finely powdered slags would, in moist situations, chemically combine with a considerable quantity of water. The more lime present the more readily does hydration occur, for calcareous slag in powder behaves almost like Portland cement and soon becomes hydrated when it is mixed with water. Lumps of cement clinker behave much like slag. The surfaces become hydrated and if used as an aggregate in concrete with finely powdered Portland cement would make a very strong coherent mass, for the hydrated surface layers of the aggregate would crystallize to- gether with the fine cement covering them. As the British Institute December 18, 1919 pieces of slag become superficially hydrated in concre‘e the surrounding cement will equally crystallize with the hydrated surface layers and produce a strong junction. The weight required to crush pebbles and whinstone is greater than for average blast-furnace slag, and as the surfaces of the natural rocks and pebbles do not readily become hydrated the union between their sur- faces and the surrounding cement when together in con- crete is not as great as it is with slag and cement. Therefore, the slag concrete is the stronger. In Dr. Stead’s experience the difference betwéen the strength of the joints between cement and slag on the one hand and cement and pebbles on the other, in broken ancient concrete which had been made with a mixture of slag and pebbles as aggregate, is that the fractures pass round the smooth surfaces of the pebbles but always through the slag and never at the joints. G. B. W. of Metals Meets Season Cracking of Brass, Bearing Metals, Solidification and Molding Sands Are Discussed T a meeting of the British Institute of Metals at Sheffield, Sept. 24 and 25, a number of interesting papers on non-ferrous subjects were presented. Season cracking of brass was the subject of a paper prepared by W. H. Hatfield and Captain G. L. Thirkell. An example of season cracking in the form of a brass plant bowl having come to the authors’ notice, a chemical and metalographical investigation was made. As further information was necessary, a series of cups were spun from sheet brass under like conditions. Rings were cut at regular intervals down the cup and after being carefully measured were severed, and the change in diameter over the original dimensions pro- vided data for calculating the stresses inherent in the metal as a result of the cold work. Different cups were annealed at varying temperatures to determine the effect of such annealing upon the removal of the stresses which had been proved to exist in the spun condition. Cups in the spun and in the variably annealed condition were placed in mercurous nitrate and by the corrosive action of that reagent the liability to crack was deter- mined. Reasons for Season Cracking of Brass These investigations led the authors to the conclu- sion that spun brass articles may contain internal stresses approximating to the maximum stress of the material. The examination of the original specimen indicated that corrosion had an important bearing upon the formation of the cracks and it was therefore con- sidered that the experiments established that the cause of the cracking lay in local weakness resulting from the discontinuity of surface produced by corrosion inducing a local concentration of the stresses already existent in a spun article. It was established that the objection- able internal stresses may be successfully removed by annealing; with progressively increasing annealing tem- peratures the internal stresses being gradually reduced to zero. The authors concluded that it was not reason- able to look for an explanation for failure in the pos- tulated properties of an amorphous film existing be- tween the crystals. In a discussion of the paper, Dr. Walter Rosenhain criticised the author’s method of estimating stresses by the expansion of rings cut from a spun cup. Such a ring, he said, was deprived of the support of its neigh- bors, and the results were therefore unreliable; also the mere question of stress was not sufficient to account for season cracking. He exhibited a number of specimens in support of this contention, one of the most striking being a sample of cast lead on which no cold work whatever had been done, but which nevertheless showed intercrystalline cracks. All these questions of season cracking, Dr. Rosenhain said, were really a matter of the position of the metal in the temperature scale, and probably the metal tungsten would act in the same way if the world were at a temptrature of about 1500 deg. C. Dr. F. C. Thompson was of the opinion that there were many causes of season cracking in which corrosion could not be a factor of any importance. Between the time of spinning and the time of season cracking, he said, some change must have occurred which converted the material from a typical ductile to a typical brittle metal by the lapse of time and at low temperatures. Replying to Dr. Thompson’s views on the influence of time, Dr. Hatfield stated that he thought the way the stress was applied and not the lapse of time had great effect in deciding whether the cracks went through or between the crystals. Captain G. L. Thirkell, replying to Dr. Rosenhain’s criticism of the method of calculating stresses, said that the possible error due to the variation in the thickness of the pot was about 5 per cent as a maximum, which would have no material effect on the conclusions. Composition and Pouring of Bearing Metals A paper on observations on a typical bearing metal, written by Miss H. E. Fry in collaboration with Dr. W. Rosenhain, was presented. The paper emoodied the re- sults of an investigation into the effects of pouring conditions on the microstructure and hardness of a white bearing metal of the composition copper 4.4 per cent, tin 86.6 per cent and antimony 8.8 per cent. The results showed that the method of casting such an alloy influenced the microstructure to a marked degree, and that by varying the temperature of pouring and the type of mold great variations in grain size could be produced. Admiral Sir George Goodwin said that there was a great difference of opinion among engineers as to the desirable amount of couper; some put it as low as 2 per cent, others as high as 7 per cent, but many con- tractors for the navy solved the difficulty by adding 2 to 7 and dividing by two. He thought failures must be due to the breakdown of the oil film between the run- ning and standing part of the bearing. In Mitchell thrust bearings, he said, they designed for a disk pres- sure of 200 lb. per sq. in., but in practice they often worked satisfactorily up to 500 or 700 Ib. per sq. in. He therefore thought that such failures as occurred must be due to wrong treatment of the metal rather than to the pressure. Dr. Rosenhain, referring to the question of the oil film, said that the reaction on the metal was by no means the only thing to be considered. Owing to the high viscosity of the oil, the tangential pull was very appreciable and tended to drag a surface film of the metal with it, thus wearing away the softer parts. The hard parts then penetrated the oil film and the bearing broke down. December 18, 1919 Prof. Cecil H. Desch then introduced the second Beilby report on the solidification of metals from the liquid state. This report, he stated, was to be re- garded as an interim one. It dealt with two questions which have arisen in the course of the main investiga- tion, namely, the form of crystal grains and the condi- tion of cellular convection. Investigating of Molding Sands A paper on molding sands for non-ferrous foundry work was presented by P. G. H. Boswell, professor of geology in the University of Liverpool. He pointed out that although the difficulties arising from the use of unsuitable molding sands in the casting of non-ferrous metals and alloys are not so acute as those similarly concerned with steel, the former carries with it prob- lems peculiarly its own. Prof. Boswell urged the in- vestigation of molding sands in works’ laboratories and indicated methods of testing and standardizing such sands. He emphasized the use and significance of chemical, mechanical and mineral analyses and stated that it was found that in sands used for non-ferrous work the mechanical] analysis rises to the position of THE IRON AGE 1253 prime importance. Methods for the graphical repre- sentation of the results of analyses were presented. The bond of molding sands, Prof. Boswell stated, may be natural or artificial, or at times both. The nat- ural bond is either hydrated iron oxide or clay and in order that the bonding power should be a maximum the clay or other material should be evenly distributed round the quartz grains. Hence the importance of the proper mixing and milling of molding sands. The location of British resources of suitable sands ‘in relation to the areas engaged in non-ferrous foundry work was discussed. The nearest and most suitable sup- plies to each metallurgical district were indicated, the distribution being shown upon a map. The business discussions of the meeting were pre- ceded each morning by a cinematograph exhibition ar- ranged by Verdon O. Cutts, showing electric furnaces in operation in the United States. This exhibition was of considerable technical interest, especially in view of the fact that the electric furnace in England has not hitherto been applied except in a very tentative and experimental manner for the melting of non-ferrous metals and alloys. Weather-Proof Siren for Emergency Signal A siren with a weather-proof housing for use as an emergency signal for factories, steel mills, coal mines, etc., is an- nounced by the Inter-State Ma- chine Products Co., Inc., Roches- ter, N. Y. The siren may be used either in a verti- cal or horizontal position. The ac- tuating motor operates on 110 volts direct current or alternating current of any frequency. Motors for dif- ferent voltages can be supplied. The finish is of bright red enamel, bakedon. The siren is said to be impervious to rain or snow, as all parts are made from copper and aluminum. When intended for inside use, the weather- proof housing is not furnished. A double-head siren in- tended as a community alarm is also manufactured, Siren for Emergency Signals New Indicator Cord Hook An indicator cord hook which is explained as en- abling the engineer to as easily and quickly connect the indicator cord with the cross head of a high speed en- gine as with a low speed engine, is being marketed by the Trill Indicator Co., Corry, Pa. The accompanying illustration shows how the hook is attached while the Hook Designed for Quickly Connecting the Indicator Cord with the Cross-Head of a High-Speed Engine engine is running. The loop of the hook is held between the thumb and the finger in such a position as to allow the pin on the standard to strike the straight part of the hook when the standard is within about 1 in. of the end of its travel. The hook swings about the thumb and finger as a pivot, which action shoves the hook downward. At that instant the piston has reached the end of its stroke. On the return stroke the pin engages the hook and the attachment is complete. A General Utility Heavy-Duty Shop Truck A shop truck for general use has been placed on the market by the Wm. H. Haskell Mfg. Co., Pawtucket, R. I. Durability and ease of operation are secured by a ball bearing for the front or steering wheel by means of a reinforced casting bearing containing hardened steel balls which enable the workman to steer the truck without effort and make for solid construction. The body is 21 in. wide, 31*in. long and 13 in. deep, and is supported on two 20-in. 2%-in.-face sidewheels and a 7-in. diameter 2%-in.-face front wheel. The clearances A Reinforced Cast- ing Bearing Con- taining Steel Balis on the Front Wheel of This Truck Is Emphasized as Making for Dura- bility and Ease of Steering are 26 in. from floor to top, 44 in. from tip to tip and 26 in. hub width. The sides are constructed of %-in. stock riveted at the corners with angle iron. The wheels are of cast iron with %-in. spokes of round ma- chinery steel, cast in hub and rim in molding. The truck has a net weight of 300 lb. and a cubic content of 3% ft. Steel Rails from Various Types of Ingots WASHINGTON, Dec. 16.—The Bureau of Standards has practically completed its investigation into sev- eral types of ingot practice including chemical, phys- ical and metallographic surface of the ingots, and of blooms and rails made from them. Of particular interest is the comparison of properties and segrega- tions of rails made from the ingots of the ordinary shape, following three practices common in the United States, and the corresponding properties of rails made from ingots of the Hadfield type with sink head. This investigation which will be published soon will include chemical analysis of split ingots, split rails and blooms, sulphur prints, metallographic investigations, tensile strength, hardness, and drop tests. Members of the patternmakers’ union, who re- mained at work at the Brightwood, Mass., plant of the National Equipment Co. during labor troubles, have been thrown out of the Central Labor Union. The ex- pelled organization has the right to appeal its case to the American Federation and ask a review of the facts. I ta Se 1254 THE IRON AGE Pressed Steel Flasks, Core Plates and Bottom Boards A line of pressed steel foundry equipment, including flasks, core plates and bottom boards, has recently been placed on the market by the United Metal Mfg. Co., Canton, Ohio. These are made of copper bearing steel, having rust-resisting and non-corrosive qualities. The flasks are pressed from 7 gage or a 3/16-in. plate, and are strengthened with corrugations or flutes % in. deep and 2% to 4 in. apart, depending on the size. It is stated that these corrugations are not of sufficient depth to interfere with the shaking out of the sand. Addi- tional strength is secured by providing a flange at the top and bottom of the flask, the top flange turning out- ward and that at the bottom turning inward, and acting as a support for sand when the flask is raised. The flask is formed in two sections, which are welded to- gether. If the mold requires a three-part flask, a cheek provided with the proper fittings may be used. The surfaces are ground on a surface grinder, this being the only machine operation required. The flask is provided with malleable iron or pressed steel fittings, handles, pin lugs, trunnions, etc., the fit- Pressed-Steel Flask Made from Keystone Copper-Bearing Sheets tings being riveted to the flask. Among the advantages claimed for the flasks is their strength in proportion to their weight and the limited amount of machine work required. It is pointed out that owing to their light- ness the flasks cen be stacked up at a considerable height on a foundry floor or a height that would not be practicable to stack iron flasks because of their heavier weight. The flasks are made in all sizes and heights. The core plates are made of stretcher leveled sheets to provide a smooth level surfece and to insure against warping, and in various types of construction, depend- ing on the sizes. The very small sizes are plain flat plates. Larger sizes have edges flanged lengthwise, to give the plates strength and to insure against warp- ing and twisting. The flanged pletes are made either without reinforcement, except the flanged edges, or are further reinforced with two or three cross angles or with two cross angles and one diagonal angle accord- December 18, 1919 Reinforced Pressed-Steel Board and a Core Plate Made of Rust Resisting Copper-Bearing Steel. The bottom board has lengthwise stiffeners which act as gas vents or chimneys ing to size. All sizes are made either plain or per forated. The bottom boards have corrugations which not only add to strength, but provide vents for the escepe of gasses. The lengthwise edges are turned under to pro vide additional strength and a clamping edge % in. in thickness. This edge tapers inwardly so that clamps will draw together rather than snap off. Each board is provided on the under side with V-shaped cross re- inforcements end four steel feet to allow it to stand in the floor sand without rocking and to provide ample clamping and lifting clearance between board and floor. Advantages claimed for the steel bottom boards are that they will not burn or deteriorate as quickly as wood, are lighter in weight and easier handled than cast iron, and there is no danger of breakage due to rough handling. Powdered Coal Fuel in Puddling Furnaces A saving in fuel consumption in puddling furnaces amounting to about 30 per cent is reported as a result of tests at the Shelton Iron, Steel & Coal Co., Ltd., Stoke-on-Trent, England, described by W. Simons be- fore the Iron and Steel Institute convention at London in September. The coal was crushed in a mill usually used for cement manufacture. Owing to the necessity of transporting the powdered coal some distance by rail, from 14% to 2% per cent moisture was absorbed, a factor that, it is stated, ordinarily cou'd be limited to 1 per cent. No difficulty was experienced in getting the requi- site temperature, the time for heating the furnace from a cold condition being 1% hr., as compared with 3 to 4 hr. usually required. With the greater range of regulation provided in a complete plant and with other feasible economies, still further reductions in fuel con- sumption, it was pointed out, could undoubtedly be effected. As regards waste heat, a meter was fixed to the feed-water pipe of the boiler and the evap- oration of the boiler was reduced by 10 per cent for a 30 per cent reduction in fuel; but with the increased output obtainable by using powdered fuel no reason was seen for any reduction in the total evaporation of the boiler previously obtained. “ There is no doubt in the minds of the experiment- ers th