The Iron Age 1918-03-07: Vol 101 Iss 10

Mit q9 1O1Z : New York, March 7, 1918 Conforming to S.A.E. Specifications MIMIEID) TE SAPMIENT re YollGettih A ne Stock List’ IL i i ; t m J : 8 ma vl in, 4 HI MI Ih sh i | Mi \ 1 } i } i ! ; Bs >| iit My | Im | a | | | | a i i ean ft li iy cae si i ie iy, ty \7 eR “ a i mn J ini fi ae i: MDistricl Branches* a. oi =a ison me 7 " yt r “ Detroit-Kresge Building ane . ow NewYork-2 Rector St South Halsted at 23°! Street- CHICAGO TABL E OF C ar TS - - - 635 ADVE R rISING INDEX - - - 463 aaa 44 He felp an 1 situa tio as W unted 43g (Clearing House Secti = Wanted Section 421 Busin pportunitie ..423 Pr ofes sssional Notices 43 PUNgNTUnU nian THE IRON AGE by-product coke plant 1s of preat value in producing war materials. From every ton of coal carbonized in a Koppers By-product Coke Oven there is recovered— Coke for making iron Gas for making steel Tar for fuel, drugs, dyes, etc. Ammonia for nitric acid and fertilizers Toluol for high explosives Benzol for drugs, dyes, explosives, motor fuel, etc. A Koppers By-product Coke Plant will produce high grade metallurgical coke and high yields of these important products. March 7, 1919 | 7 | | | | Bi el ee queens a ie New York, March 7, 1918 ESTABLISHED 1855 VOL. 101: No. 10 Utilize the Non-Essential Industries Stimulate Essential Activities by Extend- ing the List of Plants So Engaged, but Do Not Go to Curtailing Production BY STERLING H. BUNNELL* ETTING hold of the right end of a problem may make its solution easy, instead of difficult or impossible. The industrial problem of to-day is the increase of production of everything necessary to win the war, and its corollary is the decrease of pro- duction of everything unnecessary to that end. Stated in this way, the proposition would have the hearty approval of every American, even though a manufac- turer of “non-essentials.” Unfortunately, newspaper headlines and Government proclamations have been stating the corollary as the main problem, confusing the issue. The apparent chief interest of every manu- facturer thus becomes the finding of a reasonable ex- cuse for considering his own particular industry as “essential” to the conduct of the war, and the ob- ject of the nation seems to be the decrease of production instead of its increase. Manufacturers seem to stand in the false position of opposing their CAREFULLY selfish interests to the ment of army general good, while the Government urges patri- otic sacrifices after the manner of “heatless Mondays,” with idle machinery, discharged workmen looking for employment in unfamil- iar surroundings, and organizations, valuable in the future commercial of the people. and dispersed beyond re- call. Every Industry Finds Itself Necessary Confronted with the proposal to limit production in non-essential industries, almost all manufacturers feel their interests injuriously affected. The tobacco, chew- ing-gum and candy trades state that their products go largely to the armies, therefore cannot be considered as other than essentials. Manufacturers producing expensive textiles claim that high-priced goods out- wear cheap stuffs and so promote economy in the long run. Makers of jewelry and ornaments argue that the sale of their products causes the circulation of money *Chief engineer R. Martens & Co., Inc., New York Basis for a Positive Rearrangement of Our Industries for Effective War Work balanced apportion- population, and vital export trade needs. HE conservation and continuance of sufficient non-essential industries to satisfy the minimum requirements for insuring the contentment and efficiency AINTENANCE of foreign trade to safeguard necessary imports, and at same time economize on war mate- rials by concentrating on the exporta- struggle, now broken up tion of a maximum from the rich to the workers who will invest in war- loan securities and so provide funds for army and navy maintenance. Those who have no other excuse urge that their shops and special workers cease to be self- supporting and become an expense if forced by law to suspend operations. All these arguments are in the main perfectly true. Industrial Organization Must Not Be Disrupted If the date of resumption of industries on a peace basis could be foreseen with certainty to be within a period of a few months it would be the part of wisdom to throw every available man, however inefficient, into war work and stop the action of every industry not instantly and directly as- sisting to win the war. On the contrary, we know that industry will never be resumed under the pre-war conditions, but under new and sharper competition, from our and navy, civilian manufacturing Allies at first, and from our ene- miés as soon as trade is permitted to them. Win- ning the war is our first duty, but our work must not stop when that duty is done. We cannot, therefore, allow the dis- ruption of our industrial organizations, and their complete replacement by of non-essentials. Government works for war purposes only, to be disbanded and closed when their work is done; for that would leave us without the means of re- suming our commercial occupations and earning our national living. We have to prepare for a long war, even though hoping for a short one, and so must balance carefully the requirements of army and navy, civilian population, and export trade both with countries whose products we need in return and with countries whose trade we desire to obtain and hold. All these considerations tend to increase the number of industries to be considered as “essential” to-the present national good. Those industries which remain as non-essential must still be treated with considera- tion. They represent capital which will be destroyed 603 604 if work is stopped. They give employment to some at least who are not capable of working effectively in other trades more “essential.” Finally, they have in stock quantities of valuable materials which may be entirely useless for munitions, army clothing or ship- building, while readily salable when made up. Feather boas, for instance, are perhaps as useless as anything that comes to mind, but it is better that the stocks of feathers in manufacturers’ hands shall be made up (at trifling cost for labor) and sold to those who can pay for them, than that the materials should lie unused. In the one case the manufacturer and workers continue to earn their living and probably invest savings in war loans, while in the other case the investment might be made with part of the money not spent for feathers, but the manufacturer would be ruined and the workers thrown out of employment and forced to learn new trades. The Place of the Non-Essential Industry There is no possible objection to the operation of even non-essential industries to the extent that they do not use material, labor or equipment available in any way for essentials. It is not possible, however, to maintain this limit rigidly. A moderate amount of change of occupation, leisure, recreation, amusement and luxury must be permitted to every one, even soldiers in the field, if they are to maintain their best efficiency. For a day, week or month, sleep, leisure or recreation may be prevented through necessity, but not for the period of the war. The occasional high-minded ascetic can work for months or years with mind intense and physical force held to his task; but the mass of soldiers in the field and of citizens supporting the army by work at home must be given some latitude to do as they individually please. If this latitude permits the successful operation of recreation centers for the soldier abroad and theatres for the civilian working at home, it also affords a valid reason for permitting the continua- tion of non-essential industries to the amount justifiable to satisfy the average minimum requirements of the population for contentment and efficiency, and more if, as has been said, neither material nor labor, nor equip- ment, is thereby diverted from directly essential in- dustries. Non-Essentials for Trade Balance Still further scope must be permitted to some indus- tries not in any way directly useful to ourselves either for fighting, supplies, or necessary recreation. The United States is obliged to buy many commodities from other nations, and to pay for those purchases either in goods or gold. The supply of gold is limited, and it is necessary to avoid using it as currency to pay for purchases. The foreigner prefers to take his pay- ment in goods, and if he will accept jewels, pianos and gramophones, and other luxuries, instead of demand- ing coal and iron, which we need for ourselves, it is good business to give him all the “non-essentials” he will take and to receive “essentials” in return. For the purposes of export and import trade we are forced to manufacture goods of non-essential character, even though we divert to that purpose some material and labor that might be otherwise used on products useful at home. For present as well as future necessities export trade must be maintained and promoted. Non-Essential Plants Turn to War Work On every account the situation is to be dealt with positively rather than negatively. How can production of essentials be promoted? How can essentials be produced by plants now making non-essentials, and what amount of non-essential industry shall be per- mitted for export trade, and to afford a reasonable minimum of recreation and relaxation at home? These are great national questions, on the solution of which many minds are working in Washington and in many THE IRON AGE March 7, 1918 other cities not so conspicuous in the public eye. Hun- dreds of American manufacturers who perceived that their normal product was not directly useful to the conduct of the war have already pointed out their own solutions and received contracts for work adapted to their equipment and labor. Marine steam engines are being built by makers of heavy stationary engines, gas engines and refrigerating machines. Uniform cloths have taken the place of fancy woolens in textile outputs. Cotton manufacturers have worked on sub- stitutes for silk fabrics, and silk weavers in their turn produce balloon and aeroplane coverings instead of dress goods. Watch factories build chronometers, com- pass and instrument parts, and torpedo mechanisms. Workers in precious stones are producing jewels for pivot bearings. Automobile part factories have made up new jigs and tools for producing motors and ele- ments for military standard chassis. These and thou- sands of other modifications have already been made by co-operation between army and navy specialists and manufacturers of non-essential goods who naturally wanted to maintain their organizations and at the same time help to win the war. It is not to be supposed for a moment that by “maintaining their organizations” it is implied that these manufacturers withheld men from military or direct Government service; on the contrary, thousands of factory hands were permitted and encouraged to drop their jobs and enlist in the service of the country as trained mechanics or other specialists, and the members of the organization re- maining successfully undertook the training of women and unskilled men to carry on the work. Many Small Plants Left Out There is still very much to be done in the same direction by other manufacturers. The fitting out of the American Army and Navy required enormous quan- tities of goods of:all kinds. Only a small number of all the various articles wanted could be ordered at once from previous samples or from specifications furnished by our Allies in the war. As the unknown designs were gradually developed into promise of success the need for the articles became more urgent, and manu- facture had to be started on an enormous scale. The result was that necessarily the big shops got the first orders; the problems could not be complicated by scat- tering the work about in small quantities. In this way many manufacturers who made generous and patriotic offers of their small plants for any kind of government use were unable to obtain orders of any kind. Most of these, of course, therefore kept on at their former “non-essential” work, and probably did what they could to help in raising funds for the Government as the Liberty loans were put on the market. Such men are naturally disturbed and probably aggrieved at any proposition to shut down their plants and stop their work indefinitely. Such a move should not be necessary. Our Allies have had all the problems which confront us, and in more difficult form, and they have made their own solutions. Great Britain commandeered each avail- able “non-essential” shop when work suited to its equip- ment was available, compensating the owners as ar- ranged by law. If certain parts of the work in a large shop were being produced in insufficient quantities some small shop might be commandeered and the work put in there, or the original proprietors might be allowed to take a contract at a reasonable profit. Canada, having many small shops, made their problems her own and claims to have provided every manufacturer asking it with work on some portion of the enormous total of munitions to be turned out. Some Priority Blundering Priority orders have been used with good effect on the whole, but many absurd situations have been re- March 7, 1918 ported. For instance, engines urgently wanted by one department were given first-degree priority, while crankshaft forgings requisitioned by the engine builder went via another department and were put down in fourth place, and it took several weeks of interviews to get the forgings advanced, during which time the engines had to wait. To arrange a schedule even for machine parts in a small shop requires much thought and good judgment, but when the schedule is expanded to the entire manufacturing plant of a great nation it becomes too large for any mind to grasp the details, and many errors must result. Now that the greater needs of the army, navy and shipping have been standardized so that production is proceeding on a large scale in many plants, it should be possible to make an intelligent effort to provide for every manufacturer of non-essentials, work suited to his equipment and the skill of his employees; and to provide for every small shop, sub-contract work on details and parts for large orders which are being produced in other plants near by. While this is being done notification that non-essential industries are to be modified into essential industries will have the desired effect of inducing manufacturers to work up their stock on hand and put it on the market, and to present their cases to the authorities in charge of the readjustment so that suitable work may be found for their future activities. Time will thus be afforded for the needed changes, and the minimum loss will be caused, while the maximum benefit to the country’s interests will result. TIN CONTROL BY MR. HOOVER A Bill for That Purpose Reported Favorably to the House WASHINGTON, March 5.—The employment of a somewhat obscure phrase of half a dozen words in a bill just reported from the House Committee on Agriculture will result, if the bill is enacted, in placing the entire tin-plate industry under the direct control of the United States Food Admin- istration. The bill in question has been framed by Director Herbert C. Hoover and will have behind it the full measure of the Administration’s influence. The fact that it has been reported by the House committee after a short hearing accorded to Mr. Hoover is indica- tive of the intention of the Congressional leaders to pass the measure in a form entirely acceptable to the Food Administration and at the earliest practicable date. In a statement to the House committee Mr. Hoover says: “There is an increased demand for tin for munition purposes and a greatly increased use of ration con- tainers for these armies of some 12,000,000 men along the western front. They are eating to a large extent out of tin containers, and the amount of block tin available in the world is running short.” At the pres- ent time, he added, the tin-plate manufacturers are co-operating in a voluntary arrangement, as are also the tin-container makers, but some trades which use large amounts of tin are still getting their material in spite of the fact that the supply for food containers is in danger. In this connection Mr. Hoover specified tobacco, toilet articles, etc. From inquiries made here it is quite evident that Mr. Hoover’s plan to secure control of the tin-plate industry is not generally understood. Certain Repre- sentatives and Senators who have looked into the matter, however, are disposed to object strongly to giving authority to the Food Administration or to any other Government agency interested in a single line of work to control so comprehensive an industry as that engaged in the manufacture of tin plate, or even that branch of it producing containers. The com- mittee appointed by the Secretary of Commerce more than a year ago to supervise the distribution of tin THE IRON AGE 605 At a meeting of the New York Section of the Amer- ican Society of Mechanical Engineers on Feb. 21 it was decided to recommend the appointment of a committee of the society to take up the question of the best utiliza- tion of non-essential industries, and to offer its co- operation with the authorities at Washington toward the best solution. There is no doubt that the assistance of such a committee would be welcomed, and that manufacturers working together could produce a better system of attaining the desired end than could be done by any man or men without actual experience in manu- facturing affairs. To win the war is impossible without hardship, even ruin and death. It is not to avoid hardship to the manufacturer and his organization that any should protest against the limitation of the work of any plant or industry; rather, it is to avoid reducing the output of the United States. We need every ounce of effort of every citizen. The authorities should never stop a man’s work in one line without putting him instantly into another job more necessary. This condition is an ideal impossible of full attainment, but its attainment is worthy of a strong and continued effort. Let us think of the situation as needing, not the limitation of non- essential activities, but the stimulation of essential activities. In this way every plant and every organiza- tion available for any part of the essential work of the United States should be utilized, and then the few remaining non-essential industries can safely be left to take care of themselves. plate and the allotment of imported pig tin has worked very efficiently and has been able to provide all food manufacturers with adequate supplies of containers. The amount of tin used for food packages probably exceeds that consumed by any industry employing it exclusively for containers, and, although food packers have from time to time become apprehensive regarding their supply, it is understood there has as yet been no noticeable shortage. In November, 1917, imports of tin aggregated 8,405,601 pounds, as against 5,078,610 pounds for the corresponding month of 1916. Officials here have received inquiries as to whether it will not be practicable to secure a larger supply of tin from British sources during the coming year, in view of the extent to which tin plate will be used in the manufacture of containers for food to be shipped to the Allies as well as to the American forces in France. As has recently been pointed out in this correspond- ence, there was a substantial decrease in the amount of tin imported from the United Kingdom and Strait Settlements during 1917, which would have left a deficit as compared with 1916 but for the increase in receipts from the Dutch East Indies amounting to nearly 100 per cent. There is some reason to believe that the conditions emphasized by Mr. Hoover may result in the release by Great Britain of a larger quantity of tin to the United States to meet the special emergency contemplated in the supplemental Lever bill. Growth of the Krupp Steel Plant The Krupp plant-at Essen, Germany, continues to grow. As given in the German daily papers, the bal- ance sheet of Fried. Krupp A. G., of Essen, for 1916-17, shows the value of the immovable property to amount to £12,192,000 after writing off £4,171,000 for deprecia- tion, as compared with £12,081,000 and £2,757,000 re- spectively in the previous year. The directors point out that the increasing requirements of the army com- pelled the firm to erect further extensive buildings, the carrying out of which at present war rates is highly costly and consequently involved the firm in specially heavy expenditure last year. As a large portion of the buildings will only be completed in the current financial year, further considerable expenditure will be incurred this year also. Making Cast Ammunition in France How Semi-Steel Shells Are Made— Composition and the Physical Prop- erties —Sand Lining for Cupolas BY E. RONCERAY HE war which has been engaging the attention of the civilized world for over three years has made necessary the introduction of new processes in the foundry as well as in other industries. The need for ammunition is great and exceeds what was con- ceived to be necessary, even by the most visionary. It is a well-known fact that five weeks after the declara- tion of war, the battle of the Marne ended when the French and Germans had practically exhausted their entire supply of shells. It was a tragic and critical moment and every means was resorted to to obtain shells, even though imperfect. It was at this time that practice shells, made of cast iron and containing only a small amount of explosive, were used and these were produced as quickly as the foundries could turn them out. The 75-millimeter (2.96 in.) steel Shell gave such excellent results that every effort was made to secure them and even small shops were asked to bore and thread steel bars to produce these shells in two parts, one for the body and one for the cap. This imperfect type of shell and that made of cast iron saved the day for the 75-mm. rapid fire gun which was the most important weapon in use at that time. Steps were taken immediately for the manufac- ture of forged shells on an extensive scale and the out- put at present is so great that we are furnishing large quantities of them to our allies. _ A different problem was presented in providing shells for the large guns. With the increase in the diameter of the shells, manufacturing difficulties increased more rapidly. More time was required to make the large shells and to organize for their production in large quantities. It was then that the feasibility of using cast shells was seriously considered. It is well known among ordnance experts that the destructive effect of a projectile increases in proportion to its size more rapidly than the weight of the explo- sive it contains. Therefore, steel had the preference for shells in spite of the great cost of the raw material and the high cost of machining. Cast iron shells used as substitutes for steel were of a small capacity on account of the great thickness of wall it was necessary to provide, to insure adequate resistance to the ballistic action of the powder. Semi-Steel Shells The fonte acieree, that is, cast material and what is known as semi-steel, was considered and was selected finally for producing a comparatively cheap, quickly manufactured and reasonably effective shell. The Ger- mans can vouch for this. Since the beginning of 1915, an enormous number of these projectiles from 80 to 400 mm. (3.15 to 15.71 in.) have been made and fired for the cause of civilization. In addition to the semi-steel shells, an enormous amount of grenades and projectiles of all kinds have been made of cast iron in France. The metal required for semi-steel shells was defined by the following data, based on the tests made in this country by the ordnance authorities and railroad com- panies. The test piece is a square bar, 40 x 40 x 200 mm. (1.57 x 1.57 x 7.85 in.) long, cast on end in green sand with a riser. It is tested on two knives spaced 160 mm. (6.30 in.) apart, by a falling weight of 12 kg. (26.41 lb.). The initial drop is from a height of 28 cm. (11 in.) and the weight is raised 1 cm. (0.254 in.) after each blow until rupture occurs. The average breaking height must not be less than 45 em. (17.71 in.). The tensile test piece is 18 mm. (0.71-in.) in dia- *From a paper prepared for the American Foundrymen’'s Association The author is a member of the association and lives at 9 Rue des Envierges, Paris, France meter x 150 mm. (5.91 in.) long, cast on end and turned down to 16 mm. (0.63 in.). The breaking strain must not be less than 25 kg. per sq. mm. (39,900 lb. per sq. in.). Hydraulic tests of 10 sec. duration, before banding, are made at a pressure of 300 kg. per sq. cm. (4500 lb. per sq. in.) for the shells up to 160 mm. (6.30 in.) and 200 kg. (3000 lb. per sq. in.) for the larger sizes. Other tests after banding are made with compressed air or steam at 5 kg. per sq. mm. (75 |b. per sq. in.). A reasonable allowance is made for small defects difficult to eliminate entirely in practice, particularly when a great production is required. Small defects are passed externally in front of the band provided their thickness can be determined exactly with a needle and extend into the metal less than one-fourth of the wall thickness. No defects are permitted at the back of the band except small, interior depressions due to imperfect coring, provided that the thickness is not more than 2 or 3 mm. (0.079 to 0.118-in.) and that the bottom of the shell is sound. Composition of the Metal No definite analysis is enforced provided the physical tests are satisfactory. In fact, the metal is a low phos- phorus, low sulphur and low carbon iron with a suffi- ciently high amount of silicon and a sufficiently low amount of manganese to leave it soft under the condi- tions of pouring. Typical analyses of semi-steel shells follow: Diameter Diameter of Shell of Shell 150 mm 155 mm (4.74 in.), (6.11 in.). Per Cent Per Cent Total carbon ; 3,25 3.06 Silicon eer 1.34 1.17 Manganese 0.66 0.61 INU ook SE wn ee deo ae hee eae 0.08 0.08 Sulphur 0.10 0.17 To obtain a very strong metal it may be melted either in an open-hearth or electric furnace, which in- sures a low carbon product with some degree of cer- tainty, or by mixing cupola and converter metal. Ther- mic treatment will considerably improve the physical qualities. Tensile strengths of 35 to 40 kg. per sq. mm. (50,000 to 57,000 lb. per sq. in.) have been obtained regularly by these processes. This metal, however, in- creases the casting difficulties as it has a tendency to develop blowholes owing to its lack of fluidity. How- ever, for the heavy tonnages required in a short time, the cupola, well handled, gives satisfactory results and regularly produces metal that passes the necessary phy- sical tests. The bulk of the semi-steel shells made in France, either for the Allies, or for ourselves, have been cast of cupola metal. The Cupola and Its Equipment The standard cupola, as built in America, is capable of producing good semi-steel. The tuyeres, usually one or two rows close to each other in large cupolas, must be of the standard type, that is, flat and one-sixth to one-fourth of the section of the cupola. It is advan- tageous to employ a cupola, equipped either with a hearth for holding a certain amount of metal, or pro- vided with a receiver. The use of a receiving ladle is not recommended, as very hot metal with regularity of composition is essential. If a cupola equipped with a receiver is employed, provision must be made to heat the receiver white hot before pouring, or the first metal will be dull. A blower of ample size is required and it is more 606 March 7, 1918 THE advisable to have one of too large a capacity than one that must be driven to the limit to provide sufficient blast. I prefer a positive pressure blower to a fan, as the former insures better control of the melting. Sand Lining for the Cupola The best lining is none too good as all operating con- ditions are against its long life. The extended heats necessitated by the large outputs required, the exceed- ingly hot temperature needed for good metal, the large amount of coke burnt at each melt combined with its low quality at the present time and the large amount of limestone generally used, result in the rapid wear of the lining. Owing to the high cost and scarcity of re- fractory material in France, many foundrymen have adopted sand linings and it must be admitted that in a great many instances these linings have given equal, if not better results, than refractory brick. A good re- fractory sand is selected for this purpose and it should be rammed hard between the shell of the cupola and a wood form. It is then carefully dried and blacked. In wearing qualities it compares favorably with the best refractory brick. A thick lining, 12 in. or more, is recommended. The proportion of steel used in the mixture depends on the composition of the initial iron. If low carbon irons are employed, the amount of steel added must be less than if high carbon pig is used in the mixture. As a rule, the hematite irons now supplied contain more carbon than required, cold blast iron with low carbon content not being produced here in large quantities. Therefore, it is necessary to add a large amount of steel to the charges in order to reduce carbon in the final product. It is admitted that in the cupola -process, steel before melting, absorbs 1.6 to 2 per cent of carbon. Taking this into account it is easy to calculate how much steel must be added to reduce the carbon per- centage to the correct point. In French practice, up to 40 and even 50 per cent of steel is used. The amount generally charged, however, is from 15 to 30 per cent, according to the quality of the initial iron. Composition of the Final Product The final product varies for different sizes of shells and according to the methods of molding pursued. The shell casting must be softer for the smaller projectile, or more exactly, for the thinner shell, and also it must be softer when thé metal is poured in green sand molds than in dry sand. The physical properties of the test bars do not measure the final quality of the product. Therefore, test bars from the projectiles themselves are necessary. Such tests, together with actual firing practice, have shown that the best results are obtained when at least 20 per cent of the total carbon is in the combined form, this percentage being as high as con- sistent with the possibility of machining the shells. The total carbon is kept at about 3 per cent. Less than 2.75 per cent gives a sluggish metal which is difficult to handle and liable to produce unsound castings. Above 3.25 per cent carbon results in the production of cast- ings that are too weak. Several methods are pursued for controlling the combined carbon. One is to alter the amount of sili- con; another is to change the amount of manganese which seems to act in opposition to the silicon, and a third is to change the speed of cooling. Silicon precipitates carbon in the graphitic form and, conse- quently, reduces combined carbon; manganese has a reverse action, while combined carbon increases with the speed of cooling. Since the amount of manganese in the iron and steel we are using is about right, it has not been the practice to vary their percentages according to the silicon content. The speed of cooling is not easy to control and the only consideration given this factor is in connection with the change that takes place when the thickness of the shell is varied or the adoption of dry, or green sand molding methods. Silicon is the element most easily controlled and it is due to its control that semisteel shell manufacture has been suc- cessful in this country. To arrive at the minimum amount of silicon accept- IRON AGE 607 able, a test is made under the usual working condi- tions of the plant and the shells that are slightly hard- ened at the point are analyzed. These will contain the lowest admissible silicon percentage. Rule for Fixing Silicon Content Experience has shown that to obtain a sufficiently strong metal, the empirical rule T. C. + Si = 4.60 This is the maximum amount of silicon. For instance, if total carbon is 2.80 per cent then Si = 4.50 — 2.80 = 1.70 per cent. If total carbon is 3.10 per cent then Si = 4.50 — 3.10 = 1.40 per cent The amount of silicon must be kept between the limits of 1.40 and 1.70 per cent, the one corresponding to the minimum of silicon giving the maximum re- sistance permitted without having chilled castings or shells that are too hard and the other corresponding to the maximum of silicon, above which the castings would be too weak. Care must be exercised to have these figures refer to the final product and, therefore, provision must be made for silicon losses in the cupola. In working between these limits, analyses made of the actual castings will show that the percentage of combined carbon will be more than 20 per cent of the total carbon necessary to give a satisfactory shell metal. If this figure is not attained, the physical test will not be satisfactory and the shells, when tested will be shattered into small splinters, similar to dust, whereas when 20 per cent or more of combined carbon is obtained, the splinters will be larger and will be more like those of forged steel shells. Regarding the other elements, phosphorus and sul- phur must be kept as low as possible, but it may be stated that satisfactory shells can be made with as much as 0.15 per cent phosphorus and 0.12 to 0.15 per cent sulphur. Phosphorus reduces the strength, but increases the fluidity. Sulphur is without much effect on the ‘strength, but it reduces the fluidity and retains carbon in the combined form. Its action is counterbalanced by the manganese. Sulphur, however, has a tendency to produce blowholes when the metal is not poured at high temperatures and when the mold is not gated to prevent the entrance of air into the mold with the iron. must be satisfied. The Chemical Composition and Physical Tests Maximum resistance to shock must not be sought, or the tensile strength will not be satisfactory. It must be remembered that a sample giving a high shock resistance will fail in the tensile test, and vice versa A test bar, breaking under a high falling weight, un- doubtedly reveals sluggish iron liable to produce blow- holes and to chill at thin points. The tensile test probably will not be satisfactory. Under these cir- cumstances, reasonable limits must be fixed in both directions and the rules outlined will enable this re- sult to be obtained. If a high figure for the falling test and a low tensile test ire obtained, silicon must be added. If the tensile test is high and the falling test too low, car- bon must be reduced Steel and ferrosilicon, or high silicon iron, are the two agents that will best serve the metallurgist, care being exercised to take into account possible varia- tions in the initial metals used. Frequent Analyses and Rapid Tests It is helpful, of course, to analyze the initial and final products. Though it is difficult to rely entirely upon the regularity of the materials received, it must be admitted that analyses, properly made, are impor- tant. All materials should be analyzed, especially iron, scrap, coke, limestone, sand, core oil and finished castings. After a short time these analyses will pro- vide a certain amount of fixed data which will enable the metallurgist to handle with a greater degree of certainty the factors that are liable to change from day to day. For instance, phosphorus, sulphur and manganese will remain about the same for each brand of iron, sulphur for each brand of coke, and limestone and sand do not vary much if received from one source. 608 Silicon loss and carbon gain in the cupola will not change much if the same practice is followed every day. Other factors, on the other hand, are liable to con- stant changes; these include silicon in pig metal, mois- ture in the sand, composition of the core oil, ete. Therefore, analyses must be made as frequently as seems necessary under the circumstances, always keep- ing in mind that it is a practical impossibility to work only from analyses, particularly on account of the irregularity of the materials. Either Keep’s or a chill test should be made con- stantly to determine roughly if the amount of silicon is right. If not the iron may be pigged and a part of the loss recovered, or the iron can be improved by additions in the ladle, or changes in the subsequent cupola charges. It is the prevailing practice to add powdered ferrosilicon in the ladle when the iron is too hard. It also may be necessary, when the product is too variable, to pig a certain amount of metal, for in- stance, to prepare a low carbon metal from hematite iron and a large percentage of steel to use instead of scrap. If this metal is analyzed it makes more cer- tain obtaining a satisfactory final product. Some firms knowingly increase their amount of foundry scrap of known composition by making the risers much larger than is really necessary. These processes in- crease the regularity of the work, but at a heavy ex- pense in time’ and money and they must only be re- sorted to when all other means have failed. A useful, rapid test consists of taking a sample of metal every half hour and pouring it against a chill. The sample is plunged into water when set and is broken immediately. An experienced eye can tell quickly the depth of chill that gives the right metal for the needs of the foundry. This depth is not the same for all classes of shells; it must be less for small, or thin projectiles, than for heavy ones. I prefer this to another test recommended by the ordnance depart- ment, which consists of pouring cones into open sand molds from time to time, and after cooling the points are broken off for the purpose of ascertaining from the fracture if the metal is right. Operation of the Cupola The operation of the cupola is similar to that for ordinary work. However, the amount of coke used is somewhat more than the usual average, but not so much as might be imagined. It is generally from 12 to 15 per cent of the charges and this is essential on account of the necessity of having metal much hotter than is obtained usually, if sound castings are to be made. It must be borne in mind that a blowhole which would be unimportant in a machinery casting would not be passed in a shell. Also, it must be remembered that a certain amount of carbon is absorbed by the steel charged before it melts. Some foundries are using up to 20 per cent coke, but the writer considers this bad practice, as satis- factory results are obtained with a smaller amount. However, in spite of the high price of coke, foundries must not be tempted to reduce its consumption to less than that necessary to obtain the best results. Good shells are obtained regularly when the temperature of the iron at the cupola spout is about 1450 deg. C. and it must never be less than 1250 deg. C. when enter- ing the mold. Unfortunately, there are few practical methods of readily measuring the temperature of a stream of iron. Rules for Charging In charging the cupola, the rules laid down by Richard Moldenke may be followed. However, it has been found that better results have been obtained by increasing both coke and iron charges by 50 to 100 per cent over what he recommends. That means that coke charges are 6 to 8 in. high and iron charges in pro- portion. Different methods are followed for charging limestone and variations in the amounts used also pre- vail. With the poor grade of coke now furnished in this country, containing from 16 to 18 per cent of ash, some foundries use up to 12 per cent limestone and THE IRON AGE March 7, 1918 add it to all charges, including the bed. This means that charging 12 per cent coke, as much limestone as coke is used. Other foundries use two and one-half times as much limestone as ash in the coke. Good results are obtained with 5 to 6 per cent of lime. Good limestone contains about 50 per cent lime. The pig iron should be broken into small pieces, but it is still more important to use steel in small rather than large pieces, as the action of cementation wi takes place before liquefaction takes some time and would not be completed if the pieces are too large. Income Tax on a Mathematical Basis Carl G. Barth, consulting management engineer, addressed the Philadelphia section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers on Tuesday evening, Feb. 26, on the income tax, pointing out inconsistencies of the law, including recent amendments, and declar- ing himself to be strongly in favor of taxing incomes upon a formula of mathematical progression rather than upon the present system of jumps, which he called the “block method.” Mr. Barth has, it appears, given considerable time and thought to improvement of the method of levying income taxes throughout the world. His findings have been presented to tax experts of the Treasury Depart- ment, and, he said, had been passed upon as represent- ing an ideal system of income taxation, but one which Congress would be slow in adopting. He said that Congress was not made up of mathematicians, or its members would quickly see the superior advantages of the graduated method, which, he emphasized, polit- ical economists regard as the logical solution of the problem of taxing incomes. In practice, Mr. Barth’s method, as applied to the estimated incomes of all persons in the United States, would produce an annual revenue of about $504,000,000. He begins with incomes as small as $342, but said that in actual practice $500 might be accepted as a begin- ning, because this figure is small enough to include all wage earners whose incomes are sufficient to justify levying upon. While he admitted that the cost of collection of taxes upon small incomes might be greater than the monies derived, he thought the principle of direct taxation of incomes should be applied to all incomes if taxation is to be truly socialistic. By a series of charts Mr. Barth showed how his plan of taxation would work out. The results, in the aggregate, would be very much the same as under the existing law, but there would not be the present variation in the taxes levied upon two men, one on one side of a jump in the tax rate and the other on the other side. The tax on a $500 income would be, say, 60 cents per year, while on a $20,000,000 income the Government would derive two-thirds, but the interven- ing steps would not be covered in a series of irregular jumps but on a straight upward-trending line or smooth curve. Fertilizers Under Federal Control Sulphate of ammonia, produced by by-product coke ovens, blast furnace dust and other ingredients of fer- tilizers have been placed under Government regulation by order of President Wilson. A licensing plan has been adopted. Unusual activity exists at the shipyards of the Mit- subishi Engine & Dockyard Co. of Nagasaki and Kobe, says the East and West News, which adds: “In addi- tion to eight merchantmen, ranging from 6000 to 8000 tons each, to be completed before July, and for which ample steel is already in Japanese storehouses, plans are making to build submarines on a scale never before contemplated. Dr. K. Ito, an expert engineer, will have charge of this new department organized solely for the creation of the most approved types of under-sea craft. If necessary, a portion of these boats will be turned over to the Allies.” The Sections of Shearing Dies for Presses Are Always in Contact thus Preventing Accidents and Not Interfering with Production. The Sectional Guard Rail at the Right Can Be Readily Set Up or Taken Down and Removed to Another Location as Often as Is Desired Safeguarding the Automobile Worker A Semi-Portable Sectional Rail Guard and Other Accident-Prevention Arrange- ments Developed by the Ford Motor Co. devices have recently been developed by the Ford Motor Co. and are in use throughout the plant at Detroit. These include guards for presses and polishing machines, a special arrangement for freeing the air in the tool-grinding room from dust and a semi-portable sectional rail guard for use i: prevent accidents to workers, some interesting around pulleys and parts. The guard was developed by one of the em- ployees and consists of a number of posts and a series of identical sections which are supported by them to give the desired protection. One of the reasons leading to the development of this particu- similarly exposed revolving The Machines in One of the Tool Grinding Rooms Have Individual Driving Motors and Each Wheel Has an Iron Hood Cor nected to the Exhaust System Through a Ball or Universal Joint 609 610 lar guard was that it can be readily installed, thus eliminating the hazard of unguarded pulleys, since the guard may be placed at the time the machine is set up and work begun without waiting for a permanent guard to be built. The posts are fast- ened to the floor with screws, or nails may be used if the installation is only a temporary one, and the sections are hooked in place in the same manner as the members of a metal bedstead are put together. | If one or more of the sections should become broken at any time it is possible to remelt the pieces and make new sections there being practically no inter- ference with the output of the machine while this is being done since a new section can be readily slipped into place. When the permanent guard that was especially designed for a location is received, it can be substituted for the sectional rail which is available for use in some other portion of the plant. The guard which was especially designed for polishing stands can readily be adjusted to any de- sired position to cover the wheel, the manipulation of a single thumb nut being all that is required to make the change. The end nut of the spindle is protected by a hinged cap and a clean-out box is provided at the bottom of the guard where the larger particles produced by the grinding operation A Specially Designed Guard for Polishing Wheels Can Be Thumb Nut and the End Nut of the The New Steel Plant in Normandy A recent bulletin of the Chamber of Commerce of Caen, Normandy, gives particulars of the new steel plant near Caen. There are at present at Mondeville- Colombelle, as the site of the new works near Caen is known, four batteries of 42 coke ovens each, producing 1000 tons of coke a day. Two other batteries came into operation and brought the output up to 1500 tons a day, or 500,000 tons a year. The blast furnaces, the first of which has been blown in, are about 95 ft. high and can produce 400 tons a day. Each furnace has five Cowper stoves, and the whole installation will allow an output of 450,000 tons of pig iron a year. The steel works contain four 30-ton converters and five open- hearth furnaces, giving an output of 275,000 tons of basic Bessemer steel and 125,000 tons of open-hearth steel every year. The blooming mill can deal with 500,000 tons of ingots a year. The company already has large reserves of iron ore. A large engine room, 650 ft. long, contains two turbo-alternators of 3000 kw., one of 5000, and six gas engines of 6000 hp. The private harbor on the Orne canal is now ready for vessels of 2000 tons, but in time THE IRON AGE March 7, 1918 accumulate. In this way these are not drawn through the suction fan forming a part of the exhaust system to which the guard is connected and the amount of wear on the fan is reduced. All of the sections of the guard are interchangeable thus enabling the wheel at either end of the stand to be protected. In one of the tool-grinding rooms of the plant the machines are driven by individual motors, pro- vision is made for plenty of outside light and air and in addition washed air is blown into the room. Each grinding wheel has an iron hood over it which is connected to the exhaust system through a ball or universal joint. In this way close adjustment to the wheel and the maximum of flexibility are se- cured and practically every particle of the emery and iron dust produced by the grinding operation is removed. In the arrangement employed for rendering the shearing dies of presses safe the two sections of the die are always in contact. Thus it is impossi- ble for the operator to get his fingers between the parts of the die and injure them, and this safe- guarding of the dies, too, is accomplished without interfering in any way with the production of the machine. Pe were al ra | ee ee Quickly Adjusted to Any Position by Manipulating a Single Spindle Is Covered by a Hinged Cap will be open to boats of 8000 tons capacity. Thus far 30 fresh grants have been made for exploiting the iron ore deposits in Normandy, Brittany and Anjou, and the French Government is preparing to work the Littry coal fields between Saint-Lo and Bayeux. German Chromium Steel for Permanent Magnets In the report of the German Imperial Physico- Technical Institute for 1916 it is stated that 37 alloy steels with varying contents of carbon and chromium have been experimented upon, and a substitute for tungsten steel has been found for making magnets, as all the available tungsten had been commandeered by the German Government for war purposes. Though not so good as are the best tungsten steels for the pur- pose, the chromium steel selected has given satisfactory results equal to those of the more common tungsten steels. [As long ago as two years, a highly satisfactory permanent magnet steel was being made in the United States—a chromium alloy steel, instead of tungsten steel. It was described in THE IRON AGE, July 26, 1917.] Great Housing P