Conditions of labor in American industries; a summarization of the results of recent investigations, by W. Jett Lauck and Edgar Sydenstricker.

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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I I CONDITIONS OF LABOR IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Conditions of Labor in American Industries A SUMMARIZATION OF THE RESULTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS W. JETT LAUCK EDGAR SYDENSTRICKER FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON 1917 va5 u <,ori Copyright, 1917, by FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY [Printed in the United States of America] Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 Published, April, 1917 • * • • • ^^ONTENTS CHAPTER I.— THE LABOR FORCE PAoa The Racial Composition of Industrial Workers .... i The Native White American i The Foreign-bom Wage-earners 2 The Germans 3 Wage-earners from Austria-Hungary .... 3 The Poles and the Italians 4 The "War Order" Industries 4 Racial Distribution in Industries « 5 Extent of Trade-Union Membership ii Size and Variety of Trade-Union Organization . 11 Growth in Union Membership 18 Proportion of Workers Organized 19 Women in Industry 20 The Employment of Children 25 CHAPTER II.— WAGES AND EARNINGS Weekly Wages of Male Workers 29 Wages of Workers of Different Races . . . . / 38 Wages in Various Industries 40 Weekly Wages of Female Workers 43 Differences in Women's Wages According to In- dustry 47 The Difference in Wages of Men and Women Workers 57 Annual Earnings of Wage-workers 61 Recent Increases in Wage Rates ....... 69 3G0399 * vi CONTENTS CHAPTER III.— LOSS IN WORKING TIME PAGS The Wage-earner's Loss in Working Time .... 74 General Statistics and Statements 76 %K ' Statistics for Specific Industries 81 Statistics for Specific Trades and Occupations . 93 The Extent of Unemployment 100 CHAPTER IV.— CONDITIONS CAUSING IRREGULAR EMPLOYMENT Analysis of the Causes of Loss in Working Time, or Unemplo3rment 117 Evolutionary Changes AflFecting Employment . . .119 ^ Changes in Industrial Structure and Methods . .120 Changes in Demand for Labor According to Industry 122 Changes in Demand for Labor According to Locality 123 Changes in Demand f or Labor Due to the In- troduction of Machinery and New Pro- cesses 126^ Changes in Organization of Industry . . . 130 Changes in the Quantity and Character of the Labor Supply 131 Variations in the Demand for Labor Due to Fluctua- tions and Irregularities in Industry . . .137 Fluctuations, Cyclical 139 Fluctuations, Seasonal 141 Irregular Employment 152 Conditions Determining the Worker's Ability to Grasp or Retain the Opportunity to be Employed which Industry Offers 164 Effects of Unemployment 169 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER v.— WORKING CONDITIONS PAGE Hours of Labor 176- - The Trend Toward a Shorter Working Day . .176 The Working Day in the Principal Industries . . 183 Industrial Accidents 192 -- Occupational Accident Hazards . . . . . .194 Causes of Industrial Accidents 197 Nature of Injuries ......... 203 Economic Significance of Industrial Accidents . . 207 Hazards from Harmful Substances 212 Insanitary Conditions in Places of Work .... 217 - Profit-sharing and Bonus Plans 220 Employers' Welfare Work 227 / Labor and Scientific Management 232^ CHAPTER VI.— THE WAGE-EARNER'S FAMILY Annual Incomes of Wage-working Families . . . 246--- Distribution of Wage-working Families Accord- ing to Income 249 Distribution of Wage-working Families of Differ- ent Races According to Income .... 249 Differences in Family Income According to Geo- graphic Divisions 250 Differences in Family Income According to In- dustry 251 - Sources of Family Income 253 Expenditures of Wage- working Families . . .271 ' CHAPTER VIL— LIVING CONDITIONS The Diet of Wage-working Families 283 Housing Conditions 291 Living Arrangements 295 Ownership of Homes 302 Community Environment 305 viii CONTENTS / '^ CHAPTER Vni.— THE WAGE-EARNER'S HEALTH PAQS The Prevalence of Sickness Among Wage-earners. . 3^5 The Greater Prevalence of Disease Among Indus- trial Workers 3^7 Occupational Disease Hazards 3^1 Harmful Substances ; Metals, Dusts, Gases, Vapors and Fumes 3^3 Harmful Conditions in Places of Employment . . 3^3 Working Conditions which Cause Excessive Fatigue 3^5 Morbidity According to Occupation .... 328 Mortality According to Occupation 3^ Irregularity of Employment and Health 33^ Unhealthful Living Conditions 334 Inadequate Diet 334 Bad Housing Conditions 335 Effects of Unfavorable Community Environment upon Health 33^ The Employment of Women 342 Poverty and Disease 344 CHAPTER IX.-THE ADEQUACY OF WAGES AND EARNINGS Adequacy of Earnings of Male Workers to Support Families 357 The Adequacy of Women's Wages 3g The Adequacy of Fanuly Income 3W The Point of Adequate Subsistence 3^9 Studies of Minimum Standards of Family Income 37^ The Workingman's Family and Higher Living Cost. . 377 • . 385 Index . . . • PREFACE The present volume is designed to meet a practical need for a compact collection of the results of the large number of investigations and studies of conditions under which the American wage-earner and his family work and live. It is presented merely as a summarization of the principal and fundamental facts that have been ascer- tained during the past decade and a half; it is not in- tended to be a critical discussion of these facts, or to be an argument in favor of or against any partizan con- clusion, or any remedial program. Such conclusions as to the existence of a condition, or set of conditions, as appeared to be clearly warranted by the facts ascertained by official and other authoritative data, have been sug- gested, but the attempt has been made to avoid the state- ment of opinions or of conclusions which, altho the authors may feel convinced of their truth, are not gen- erally agreed upon as the actual results of the various inquiries. The presentation of the data has been confined to the conditions of wage-earners in manufacturing and mining industries because comparable data for workers in trade (with some exceptions), transportation, and agriculture, have not been found available. The summarization of even these data has been found to be extremely difficult because methods of investigation have varied; because there has been a wide difference in the scope of the in- iz X PREFACE quiries; and because their results have often been stated in terms and in forms often impossible of comparison. So far as practicable the effort has been made to state the results of investigations in comparable terms, but com- putations have been studiously avoided in order to allow the results of various investigations to be given in their original form. In statements of earnings, for example, computations and estimates based upon daily and hourly rates have not been employed ; only statements of actual earnings as shown in the reports of investigations have been used. It has been deemed best, in presenting a col- lection of data from many different sources, to shun the introduction of the element of statistical speculation as to general conclusions, which must necessarily be founded frequently upon meager or slightly related facts. The mass of detail which studentsi of labor conditions have accumulated in recent years is so great as to render impossible the inclusion in a single volume of a consider- able amount of descriptive material. The authors have therefore been compelled to sacrifice much interesting and some illuminating data in order to keep within the limits of a practical handbook. The result is a statement, rather than description, of some of the fundamental conditions of labor in modern industry in the United States, which, it is hoped, will prove useful to the student, be he in the classroom or in his vocation, employer or employee, busi- ness man, social worker or legislator. It is thoroughly realized by the authors that since the summer of 191 5 there have been marked changes in wages, hours, and employment due to unusual industrial PREFACE xi activity. Attention has been called to these changes at various points in the presentation and, wherever there have been sufficient data, the general effects of these changes have been suggested. As yet, however, the re- sults of investigations of the changed conditions of labor are not available. Moreover, the permanency of the changed conditions during the past two years is, it is be- lieved, generally regarded as problematical in considerable degree. The stunmary presented in this volume is thus a summary of conditions as they have been found to exist in the period roughly indicated as beginning with 1900 and ending with 1914 or 1915. Much of the labor and facilities necessary for such a summarization were rendered possible by the fact that the authors were assigned to undertake a similar task for the Federal Commission on Industrial Relations, the re- sults of which, however, were not published. The authors desire to express acknowledgments to other members of the Commission's staff for such data as they collected in unpublished reports made for the Commission's use, and especially to Mr. J. H. Bradford, Miss Frances Valiant, Mr. Lei fur Magnusson, and Dr. Ralph D. Fleming, who for a time were assigned to assist the authors. The volume contains considerable data later collected and added, however, and particular acknowledgments are due to Mr. Leifur Magnusson for the preparation of some of the material not included in the scope of the Commission's assignment. The sections on Profit-Sharing, Welfare Work, and Scientific Management were also prepared by Mr. Magnusson. The Index was prepared by Mr. E. Kletsch of the Catalog Division, Library of Congress. CONDITIONS OF LABDR IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES THE LABOR FORCE THE RACIAL COMPOSITION OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS Several years ago the former United States Immi- gration Commission conducted an exhaustive inquiry as to the racial composition of American industry, and the situation at present is practically the same as it was when this investigation was made. The extent to which differ- ent alien races were employed in American industries, as disclosed by the Immigration Commission, summarily stated, was as follows : Native-bom Americans of native father, 25 per cent. Native-bom Americans of foreign father, 17 per cent Foreign-bom 58 per cent. Fewer than one out of every four workers in our basic industries are, therefore, native Americans; while more than three out of every five industrial workers are of for- eign birth. The remainder, constituting about 17 per cent., are immigrant workmen of the second generation. Of the native American workers in mines, mills, etc., one- fifth are negroes, and four-fifths, whites. On the basis of general nativity, 42 per cent, of the industrial forces are of native birth while 58 per cent, were bom abroad. The Native White American The native-born white American, or native-born whites of native fathers, are employed most extensively in the I 2 . . . . CONDITIONS OF LABOR r \ manufacture of cigars and tobacco, collars and cuffs, glass, gloves and shoes. Only a small percentage, ranging from one-fifth to one-tenth of the wage-earners in the leading branches of American industries, are native white Americans. The native negroes have their largest nirni- bers of workers in cigar and tobacco manufacturing, bituminous coal mining, and in construction work in the Southern States; considerable proportions are also em- ployed in slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. The Forexgfirhorn Wage-earners The proportion which foreign-bom wage-earners con- stitute of the total operating forces of some of our lead- ing industries may be briefly stated, as follows : Per cent, of Industst all employees Agricultural implements and vehicles 60 Boots and shoes 27 Cigars and tobacco . . . . 33 Clothing 72 Bituminous coal mining 62 Copper mining and smelting 65 Cotton goods manufacturing 69 Furniture manufacturing 59 Glass manufacturing 39 Iron and steel manufacturing 58 Iron ore mining 53 Leather manufacturing 67 Oil refining 67 Silk dyeing 75 Silk goods manufacturing 34 Slaughtering and meat packing 61 Sugar refining 85 Woolen and worsted goods manufacturing 62 Electric supplies manufacturing 45 Firearms manufacturing 40 Foundry and machine shops 55 Total (all leading industries) 58 IN 'AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 3 The Germans The German industrial workers of the second genera- tion, as well as those of recent arrival in this country, are most extensively employed in agricultural implement and vehicle manufacturing, boot and shoe factories, clothing, glass, gloves, iron and steel, leather, oil refining, silk goods, silk dyeing, slaughtering and meat packing, elec- tric supplies, cutlery and tools, car building, firearms, foundry and machine shops, locomotive building, hosiery and knit goods, zinc smelting and refining. Wage-earners from Austria-Hungary The principal wage-earners from Austria-Htmgary are Bohemians, Croatians, Magyars and Slovaks. Most of these industrial workers are of recent arrival, and com- paratively small proportions of those of the second gen- eration, or of native birth but of foreign father, are employed. Croatians are found in largest numbers in rail- road and other construction work, copper mining and smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, iron ore mining, slaughtering and meat packing, bituminous coal mining, leather manufacturing, and oil refining. Magyars, or Hungarians, are distributed throughout all industries, the greatest numbers being found in iron and steel manufac- turing, bituminous coal mining, silk dyeing, and sugar manufacturing. The Slovaks are most largely employed in bitiuninous coal mining, oil refining, and iron and steel manufacturing. The Bohemians have their largest pro- portions engaged in manufacturing clothing, agricultural implements and vehicles, in slaughtering and meat pack- J 4 CONDITIONS OF LABOR itig, and in making electric supplies. They are also well represented in the manufacture of glass, gloves, iron and steel, furniture and leather. Altogether, wage-earners from Austria-Hungary make up, at least, 15 per cent, of the operating forces of our leading industries. The Poles and the Italians Italians, both from the north and south of Italy, are extensively employed and constitute about 7 per cent, of the total number of industrial workers. Their largest numbers are engaged in railroad and other construction work, iron ore and bituminous coal mining, and in the manufacture of clothing, foundry and machine shops, and hosiery and knit goods mills. The Poles are at work in practically all branches of industry, the greater propor- tion being employed in sugar refineries, cotton mills, fiu:- niture factories, bituminous coal mines, slaughtering and meat packing, leather manufacturing, car and locomotive building, zinc mining and smelting, in foundry and machine shops, and in the rope, twine and hemp industry. The ''War Order'^ Industries Probably the racial make-up of the operating forces of industries which have received European war orders has changed in some cases, especially in the manufacture of explosives, since the investigation of the Immigration Commission. So far as information is available, how- ever, it will be of value to note the conditions in those branches of industry most directly related to war. In the manufacture of firearms, the Immigration G)mmis- IN "AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 5 sion found that two-fifths of the employees were of for- eign birth, the principal races represented being French- CanadianSy English, Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, Scotch and Swedes. In fotmdries and machine shops, 55 per cent, of the workers were of foreign birth, the leading races being English, German, Irish, Italians, Swedes and Poles. In cutlery and tool establishments, 63 per cent, of the wage-earners were foreign-bom, the largest pro- portions being composed of Swedes, Germans, Irish, Poles and English. In the coal mines, the Slovaks, Poles, and Italians, and Croatians predominate, as well as in>the labor forces of iron and steel plants and blast furnaces. Racial Distribution in Industries Altogether, 56 distinct races were found by the Immi- gration Commission to be represented at work in the lead- ing branches of American industry. Almost one-half of the forcign-bom workers were from Southern and East- cm Europe, the largest numbers of those of foreign birth being from Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, and the Bal- kans. The distribution of employees by races in 21 basic industries of the country is shown in the table on pp. 6 and 7, in terms of percentages. This table was compiled by the former United States Immigration Commission and is based on data secured from 507,256 wage-eamers.* Similar information was secured for 16 minor indus- tries including 112,339 employees. This is set forth in the table on p. 8, in terms of percentages by sex and industry.* ■ ^ Rtport of U. S. 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FbfBign-bom. by race: Bohemian and Moraviani .... Canadian, French Canadian, Other. Croatian English German Greek Irish Italian, North.. . Italian. South. . . Lithuanian Magyar, Po^h.. Russian, Scotch Slovak. ... Swedish Other races. Grand total. Total native-bom of foreign father Total native-born. . . . Total foreign-bom. . . 22.2 .0 1.1 7.0 2.6 3.6 7.0 1.6 .3 .0 1.9 .0 2.8 .7 .0 2.1 1.6 .0 3.1 .8 1.5 .7 .0 36.5 .8 1.0 .0 .0 1.1 100.0 _ 25.1 47.3 52.7 30.7 .0 2.1 4.2 4.8 8.3 15.1 1.6 2.7 .1 2.8 .2 2.1 6.1 .1 4.0 1.8 .8 3.5 .3 .1 .4 .5 2.1 .5 1.3 .0 .7 3.1 100.0 41.7 72.4 27.6 20.6 .0 1.4 1.2 1.8 12.6 10.8 1.7 1.1 .1 3.4 .0 .4 .3 .0 1.6 4.4 1.2 1.0 1.7 1.8 2.9 .2 22.4 3.3 .2 .6 .5 2.8 100.0 34.1 54.7 45.3 a 40.8 (a) 1.1 1.9 3.6 11.5 14.0 1.4 .7 1.6 2.1 .1 .8 .6 .0 1.6 2.1 .0 2.3 .6 2.0 .8 .3 4.5 .6 .4 2.3 (a) 2.3 100.0 37.9 78.7 21.3 38.4 .0 .1 9.4 2.2 3.5 17.7 .1 1.8 .0 .8 .0 6.5 .5 .0 i.O .6 .0 12.0 .1 .0 .8 .1 2.6 .2 1.3 .0 .1 .2 100.0 35.6 74.0 26.0 39.6 .0 .8 11.9 3.1 6.3 21.7 .8 2.5 .6 1.0 .2 3.8 1.9 .0 1.2 .8 .0 2.1 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .2 .0 .0 1.5 100.0 9.5 .1 .4 4.8 .6 .6 3.1 .1 .9 .0 .2 .0 6.0 .2 .0 .5 .3 1.7 2.5 2.0 .9 .1 .0 48.9 2.0 13.6 .3 .0 .7 100.0 48.7 88.3 11.7 10.7 20.3 79.7 32.2 .0 1.2 .6 2.9 18.4 27.8 i.O 2.4 .4 2.2 .2 .0 .0 .0 1.4 3.1 .0 2.0 ..0 .2 .4 .4 .4 1.0 1.2 .0 .0 .5 100.0 56.9 89.2 10.8 11 I C E 62.2 .0 .5 1.9 4.4 8.2 9.9 .0 .3 .8 4.1 .0 .0 2.2 .O 1.1 2.2 .O 1.1 .3 .3 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .5 100.0 30.1 92.3 7.7 a Less than 0.05 per cent IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES ii EXTENT OF TRADE-UNION MEMBERSHIP The extent pf trade-union membership in the United States can be only approximated because no single agency, either private or official, attempts to collect statistics of trade-union membership regularly.' Recently, however, studies of the extent and the growth of labor organiza- tion in the United States by Wolman * and by Bamett * have provided bases for a very much closer estimate of the actual ntunber of organized wage-workers, and of the proportion they bear to the total number of wage-earners, than has been possible heretofore. Professor Bamett's study includes the year 1914 and its results are sum- marized briefly below. Size and Variety of Trade-Union Organization A grand total of about 2,700,000 members of trade unions in the United States in 1913 and 1914 is indicated. This was the highest figure attained up to that time. In 1897 it was 444,500; in 1905, 1,945,000, and in 1910, 2,138,000. The following table, abridged from Professor Bamett's detailed statistics,' shows the membership in 1914 of each union and group of unions, the classifica- * The statistics published annually by the American Federation of Labor cover only those unions which are affiliated with it« and the unions in the Federation are not the same oyer any given series of years. The New York Department of Labor (now under tihe New York Industrial Commission) has, since 1906, pub- lished annually statistics of American trade-union membership supplementary to the statistics published by the Federation which, since 1911, are probably fairly close approximations. * Leo Wolman: The Extent of Labor Organisation in the United States in 1910. Quarterly Journal of Economics. May, 1916. ■George E. Bamett: Growth of Labor Organization in the United States, 1S974914, Quarterly Journal of Economics. August. 1916. * Statistics of membership were obtained by Professor Barnett directly from 12 CONDITIONS OF LABOR tion of unions into groups being very similar to the classi- fication used by the British Board of Trade. The large variety of labor organizations, as well as their distinctive- ness along industrial lines, is clearly indicated : Membership of American Trade Unions, ipi4 Building: Bricklayers and masons 82,500 Bridge and iron work 13,200 Building laborers 9,800 Carpenters. United 212,200 Cement work 7,300 Ceramic tile layers 3,000 Composition roofers 1,600 Compressed air work 1,000 Electrical work (A. F. of L.) 30,800 Elevator constructors 2,700 Heat and asbestos work 1,000 Hod carriers 25,600 Marble work 4,100 Painters 74,400 Plasterers 18,000 Plumbers 29,700 Sheet metal work 17,800 Slate and tile roofers 600 Wood and metal lathers 6,700 Total in group 542,000 official publications of the vidoot or from unioo officials wherever possible. These were supplemented by rtatistica of affiliated unions taken from the reports of the Asierican Federation of Labor, and by statistics of unaffiliated unions from the reports of the New York Department of Labor. For an explanation and discussion of the sources of the data and of the methods employed in this compilation, see Barnett, he, a#., p. 785. IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 13 Metal* machinery, and shipbuilding : Blacksmiths 9,600 Boiler makers 1^700 Carriage work 3,500 Car work 11,000 Chandelier work 400 Cutting die makers 300 Diamond work 300 Engineers, Amalgamated 2»700 Foundry employees 600 Iron, steel and tin work 6,500 Machuiists 75,400 Metal polishers 10,000 Metal work, Brotherhood 1,700 Molders 50,000 Pattern makers ^700 Pocket knife grinders 300 Railway carmen 28,700 Saw smiths 100 Stove mounters 1|100 Wire weavers 300 ToUl in group 225,900 Textile: Qoth weavers 5,000 Elastic goring weavers 100 Lace operatives 1,200 Loomfixers 1,600 Machine textile printers 400 Print cutters 400 Spinners 2,200 TcxtUcwork 18,000 Wool sorters and graders 1,400 Total in group 30,300 14 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Mining and quarrying: Miners, Western Federation 36^900 Mine workers. United 359,000 Quarry work 4,000 Slate work 300 Total ingroup 380,200 Transportation : G>mmercial telegraphers 1,000 Locomotive engineers 73,800 Locomotive firemen 86^800 Longshoremen 25,000 Maintenance of way employees . . . . 6,500 Marine engineers 9,100 Masters, mates, and pilots 5,000 Mechanical trackmen . . 300 Pavers 1,600 Paving cutters 3,500 Railroad freight handlers 2,900 Railroad signalmen 700 Railroad station agents 1,100 Railroad station employees 4,300 Railroad telegraphers 25,000 Railroad trainmen 126,100 Railway clerks 5,000 Railway conductors 49,100 Seamen 16^000 Steam shovelmen 1,800 Street and electric railway employees 54,500 Switchmen 9,800 Teamsters 51,100 Tunnel constructors 1,700 Total ingroup 561»700 IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 15 Qothing: Qotfa hat and cap makers 3,600 Garment work 60,700 Glove work 1,100 Hatters 9,000 Ladies' garment work 69,900 Straw and ladies' hatters 700 Tailors 12,000 Total in group 157,000 Paper, printing and bookbinding: Bookbinders 9,400 Lithographers 2,800 Lithographic press feeders 1,000 Lithographic workmen 500 Machine printers 500 Paper makers 4,400 Photo-engravers 4,700 Poster artists 400 Printing pressmen 19,300 Pitlp and paper mill work 3,500 Steel plate printers 1,300 Steel plate transferrers 100 Stereotypers and electrotypers 4,500 Typographical 58,500 Total in group 110,900 Leather: Boot and shoe work 38,100 Boot and shoe cutters 700 Leather work on horse goods 1,800 Shoe work. United 14,000 Traveling goods and leather novelty work • . . . 900 Total in group .. 55,500 i6 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Lumber and woodworking: Box makers and sawyers 12,300 Coopers 4,400 Piano and organ work 1,000 Timber work 2,500 Upholsterers -3,500 Wood-carvers 1,100 Total in group 24,800 Chemical, clay, glass and stone: Brick, tile work 3,200 Flint glass work 9,900 Glass bottle blowers 10,000 Glass work, Amalgamated 1,200 Granite cutters 13,500 Potters, operative 7,700 Powder work 200 Stone-cutters 6^000 Window glass snappers 2,200 Window glass work 3,900 Total in group 57,800 Public service: Government employees 4,000 Letter carriers 32,200 Post office clerks, Assoc 25,000 Post office clerks. Fed 2^00 Railway mail association 12,900 Railway postal clerks 1,500 State, city employees 2^00 Total in group 81,200 IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 17 Food, liquor and tobacco: Bakery work 15,700 Brewery work 67,600 Ggarmakers 48»500 Stogie makers 1,400 Tobacco work 3,700 Totaiin group 136^900 Restaurant and trade: Butcher work 2,000 Hotel employees 59,000 Hotel work 12,600 Meat cutters 6^200 ttetatl clerics 15,000 Total in group 94,800 Miscellaneous : Barbers 34,300 Bill posters 1,400 Broom makers 700 Brush makers 200 Trade and Fed. Unions (A. F. of L.) 27,200 Fur work 800 Horseshoers 5,700 I. W. W. (Chicago) 12,000 L W. W. (Detroit) 2,000 Laundry work 2,800 Stationary firemen 16,000 Steam engineers 20,300 Total in group 123,400 i8 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Theaters and music: Musical and theatrical union 6^000 Musicians 60,000 Theatrical stage employees 15,000 White Rats Actors' Union 11,000 Total in group 92,000 Total in all groups 2,674,400 Growth in Union Membership The annual statistics from 1897 ^^ 1914 have ex- hibited, in the main, a steady growth. There were, how- ever, several marked variations. It is interesting to note that these variations reflected very closely the changes in business conditions, a loss of membership resulting when- ever a depression occurred and an increase in member- ship whenever a period of prosperity took place. Thus from 1897 to 1904 there was a period of uninterrupted increase in membership from 444,500 to 2,072,600; from 1904 to 1909 the membership was practically stationary, concurrent with business depressions in 1904 and 1907; and from 1909 to 1913 another period of increase in membership and of absence of depressions. It is quite probable that the slight decrease in 1914 has been more than offset in the period of industrial activity which be- gan in the summer of 191 5, if we may judge from the reports of the American Federation of Labor and from statements of a number of trade-union officials. The following table shows for each group the per cent, of the total trade-union membership contained in each group for each of the years 1897, 1900, 1910, and 1914, IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 19 the groups being arranged in the order of their im- portance in 1897:^ PER CENT. OF TOTAL MEMBERSHIP IN EACH GROUP OF XWIONS IN THE YEARS 1897. 1900. 1910 AND 1914 1897 1900 1910 1914 Transportation 26.2 21.9 22.5 21.0 Building 152 17.7 21.5 20.3 Metal, machinery and shipbuilding . . 11.3 9.3 92 8.4 Food, liquor and tobacco 9.9 7.6 5.4 5.1 Paper, printing and bookbinding .... 8.5 5.5 42 4.1' Chemical, clay, glass and stone .... 52 3.4 2.8 2.2 - Mining and quarrying 4.7 15.1 12.9 142 Clothing 3.3 2.9 4.6 5.9 Leather 2.9 0.8 2.1 2.1 Public service 2.5 13 2.7 3.0 Textile 1.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 Theaters and music 1.5 1.1 2.8 3.4 Restaurants and trade 1.4 3.2 2.8 3.5 Lumber and woodworking 1.2 3.0 1.3 0.9 Miscellaneous 4J 5.8 4.4 4.6 It will be noted that the transportation, building and mining groups have contained about half of the total trade-union membership, and over half of the total in- crease in membership has been in these unions. The groups showing an actual decrease in their relative im- portance are paper, printing and bookbinding and the chemical, clay, glass, and stone groups; these, however, were already fairly well organized in 1897. The total increase in trade-union membership appeared to be at a much more rapid rate than the increase in population, or in the number of gainfully occupied persons. Proportion of Workers Organised The census statistics of occupations do not permit of an accurate separation of "wage-earners'* from the total * Baroett, he. ci*., p. £93. 20 CONDITIONS OF LABOR of those who are enumerated as "gainfully employed," but by deducting employers or self-employed and fee- receiving workers (professional), an approximation of the total number of wage-earners is possible. In 1900 there were 21,837,050 such wage-earners and in 1910, 30,267,000. Using these figures and the statistics of trade-union membership for the same years as bases for computation, Professor Barnett has estimated that the trade-union membership was 4 per cent, of the total number of wage-earners in 1900 and 7 per cent, in 1910. In view of the lessened rate of immigration and the increase in union membership in 191 5 and 19 16, it is very probable that the ratio was considerably higher at the end of 1916 than in 1910. WOMEN IN INDUSTRY The proportion of women 10 years of age and over in gainful occupations in the United States increased from 18.3 per cent, in 1900 to 21.2 per cent, in 1910. The largest proportionate increase was in the number engaged in personal and domestic service (explained as due to a change in classification as between the different cen- suses) , followed by an increase of from 10.6 per cent, in trade and transportation to 15.8 between 1900 and 1910. Here opportunities for women have probably increased. In agriculture a substantial increase has occurred— 9.4 per cent to 14.4 per cent. In manufacturing and mechanical pursuits only has a decrease occurred — from 18.5 per cent to 16.4 per cent. There is not an industry group embraced in the Federal Census report in which IN 'AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 21 women are not employed. The different branches of in- dustry in which the largest proportion of women were reported in 19 10 were as follows: Paint factories. Mnnstion and fireworks establishments. Chemical works. Soap factories. Qothing manufacturing. G>rset, glove and hat factories. Candy factories. Manufacture of food products. Wagon and carriage manufacturing. Leather and leather products manufacturing. Shoe factories. Qock and watch and jewelry factories. Box factories. Paper products manufacturing. Printing and publishing. Cotton, knitting, woolen, lace and embroidery, linen, silk, and carpet mills. Button factories. Rubber factories. Straw factories. Laundries. A large part of the office staffs of banks, insurance companies, brokerage offices and real estate firms were composed of girls and women. Slightly more than one- sixth of the total number of persons employed in whole- sale and retail trade were female persons. Almost one- half of the workers in professional service, and two- thirds of those in domestic service, were also women and girls. The following table shows the employment of such persons in ^e United States in 1910, by age groups, and by principal industries : ^ ■"a «3 is" S 1| lis 552 p 5.s.ppsS| |||s.||Spi|j ; s-sssa-sa'ss ;-ii. [1 =|||pp||gS|lgg|ll|||5||5=5g^^^ g I s I K " " - - — » "« r I " I ill H= 2 S" Jl "" ' 1 O G 5 IN 'AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 25 THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN The latest available statistics as to the extent to which children under 16 years of age were gainfully employed are contained in the Federal Census of 1910. According to these reports there were 1,990,225 children of both sexes between the ages of 10 and 15 years who were gain- fully employed at the time the information was gathered. They constituted almost 12 per cent, of all persons gain- fully employed in agricultural pursuits and slightly more than 2 per cent, of those in other gainful pursuits than agricultural. Of all the children gainfully employed, 895,946 were less than 14 years of age. Of those between the ages of 10 and 13 years, 609,030 were boys and 286,946 girls. Almost 17,000 boys under 16 were working in coal and iron ore mines and quarries, of which number about 2,200 were between the ages of 10 and 13 years. The industries in which children under 16 were employed in the greatest numbers were clothing, shoe factories, bakeries, candy, hat, collar, shirt and cuff factories, slaughtering and meat-packing houses, blast furnaces and steel mills, saw and planing mills, printing and publishing establishments, cotton mills, telegraph and telephones, banking and brokerage offices, cigar and tobacco factories, silk, knitting, and woolen mills. By far the greatest niun- ber of children were at work in mercantile establishments and textile mills. The following table shows in a sum- mary way the extent to which children were employed in 1910 by age, sex, and industry: si- ll :" -5 1^ 9 I 1-3 - ' sag' I ilS ^Sv>«4£t^«3*4MS^I III Bl; 11 sn ||SS": •2n w =iSi:"liS?--s.«; ^lilalllllli ■8:1 M Is -I Irs ■1' 9 -111 r 28 CONDITIONS OF LABOR n WAGES AND EARNINGS For the purpose of ascertaining the economic status of wage-earners, statistics of wage rates are useful only in the sense that they afford data as to the maximum possible earnings of workers in various occupations, industries and localities. The loss of working time is so considerable and so variable a factor in different occu- pations and industries, as will be pointed out in a later chapter, that statistics of weekly full-time earnings, or weekly wage rates, or even of actual weekly earn- ings, can not be employed to indicate the condition of labor from the standpoint of its economic advantages or disadvantages, unless the extent of the actual oppor- tunity to receive wages regularly be taken into con- sideration. Statistics of annual earnings, therefore, are a far more accurate method of measuring the real advantages which individual wage-earners obtain from their wages. Since the family is the natural economic unit, however, the adequacy of the individual wage- earner's earnings must be interpreted in terms of the amount necessary to support a family under varying conditions of community environment. Statistics of family income must be regarded as the most accurate and complete index of the economic status of the wage- working population of any locality or in any industry. IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 29 With this very general statement concerning the value of the different forms of wage statistics, it is purposed in the following pages to present a brief summary of the recent statistics of weekly wage rates and weekly earnings of adult wage-workers, and such statistics of actual annual earnings as are available. No attempt is made to include statistics of hourly or daily wage rates, or computations made from them; nor has it been deemed advisable to include the results of various general computations of annual earnings from hourly, daily, or weekly wage rates or earnings, since the factor of loss of time is not an accurately determinable one. The following summary is thus con- fined to the published statistics of weekly wsLge rates and to the results of investigations which have afforded data relating to weekly and annual earnings. In a later chapter similar data regarding family income are presented. Weekly Wages of Male Workers Taking all the principal industries, for which data are available, into consideration, the conclusion appears to be warranted that during the past few years between one-fifth and one-third of the male workers 18 years of age and over earned at rates of less than $10 a week, between two-thirds and three-fourths earned less than $15, and only about 10 per cent, earned more than $20 a week. This does not take into consideration time lost from any cause, altho some of the statistics upon which this 30 CONDITIONS OF LABOR conclusion is based specify actual weekly earnings, while other statistics afford data as to weekly full time earnings, or weekly rates of pay. The conclusion has been stated in terms of sufficient latitude to allow for these considerations. The Federal Immigration Commission's data for 220,390 male employees in representative establishments in industrial localities showed that 32 per cent, earned less than $10; 75 per cent, less than $15, and 93 per cent, less than $20 a week, the average being $12.64. These percentages are for both foreign and native-bom workers, the latter constituting about 60 per cent, of the total 220,390 individuals, but they are not greatly affected by the slight predominance of foreign-bom employees. It will be seen that the average percentage of all employees earning less than the specified amounts is very nearly the average of the percentage for both nativity groups in every instance. Foreign-bom workers, however, appeared to be lower in the industrial scale than native-bom, as shown in the following summary of the Immigration Commission's figures: WEEKLY EARNINGS OP MALE WORKERS 18 YEARS OP AGE AND OVER, BY NATIVITY GROUPS. (Per Cent.) Foreign NatxTC bom bom ToUl Under $10 36 25 32 Under $15 80 65 • 75 Under $20 95 88 93 Number 139,610 80,780 220,390 The percentage for total employees shown by the regular State reports of New Jersey, Massachusetts, IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 31 Kansas and Ohio, while depicting rates of wages rather than actual weekly earnings in specific sections of the country, tend to corroborate the earlier data from the Immigration Commission's reports for all the principal industrial sections in the United States. The state figures are given in the following tabulation along with the totals from the Immigration Commission's report : WEEEXY EARNINGS OF MALE EMPLOYEES IN ALL INDUSTRIES > Per cent, earning specified unoonts or rates lili i^^s h-- |^«- 1^^- Under $10 . . 32 JO 25 17 12 Under $15 . . 75 68 65 63 57 Under $20 .. 93 89 88 86 a Total number 220,390 259,341 446,530 54,178 573,2456 s Seventy-six per cent, under $18 per week and 94 per cent, under $25 per vecx. b Ryclnave of bookkeepers, stenographers, office help, and salesmen. The Ohio report, which is one of the most compre- hensive Statistical presentations of wage statistics of its kind, included data for employees in every industry within that state in which three or more establishments reported and 200 or more wage-earners were repre- sented. It showed that 11.7 per cent, of male wage- earners 18 years of age or over worked for less than $10 a week, 29.6 per cent, for less than $12, 56.9 per *The age Umits in the various reports differ slightly. The Immigration Commission and the MasMchusetts and Ohio reports are for males 18 years of age and over, and the New Jersey and Kansas reports are for male em- ployees 16 yean of age and over. 32 CONDITIONS OF LABOR cent, for less than $15, 76.0 per cent, for less than $18, and 94.1 per cent, for less than $25 a week. The wage data for the 573,245 male wage-earners 18 years of age or over are briefly summarized below : CLASSIFIED RATES OF WAGES OP MALE WAGE-EARNERS 18 YEARS OP AGE OR OVER IN OHIO, 1914 Number of adtilt male p^^ cent. Rati of Waobi pbr Week wage-earners at each j:.*ju..*i«« claaaified rate diatnbttfaoo Less than $6 5.904 U $6 but under |7 5,696 IJd 7 but under 8 8,588 U 8 but under 9 13,571 2.4 9 but under 10 32,794 5.7 10 but under 12 102,460 17.9 12 but under 15 156,260 27.3 15 but under 18 109,225 19.1 18 but under 25 103,545 l&l 25 but under 35 28,814 5.0 35 or over 6,388 1.1 Total 573,245 100.0 The classified rate of wages occurring more fre- quently than any other is $12 but under $15 per week, at which rate 156,260, or 27.3 per cent, of the total number, work. The rate second in importance is $15 but under $18 per week, at which rate 109,225, or 1 9. 1 per cent, of the total number, are employed. Com- bining the groups it will be seen that 258,720, or 45.2 per cent, of the total number, work for $10 but under $15 per week, and that 212,770, or 37.2 per cent, of the total number, work for $15 but under $25 per week.* The recent investigations of the New York Factory Investigating Commission found that in four industries "Bnlletin of the Industrial Commission of Ohio: Rates of Wagei, Hours of Labor, and Fluctuation of Employment in Ohio in 1914, p. 8. IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 33 —confectionery, paper box and shirt factories and retail stores — ^more than three-fifths of the male workers received less than $15 per week when working full time.* In the following table is presented a compilation of statistics from recent official sources showing the pro- portion of male workers earning under specified amounts weekly. Some of these data represent actual earnings; others, full time weekly rates of pay : * •H. B. Woobton: Wages in New York; Survey, Feb. 6, 1915, p. 505. 'The foreffoixig statistics were compiled from the following reports and pnUicatioos. The age limits used in the various sources are also indicated below: Census— -Report on manufactures, 1905 (16 years and over). Conditions of employment in the iron and steel industry in the United States. 62d Cong., 1st Sess., Senate Doc No. 110. 1913. Vol III. Htch, John. The steel workers. 1910. Kansas — ^Department of labor and industry: Annual report for 1913 (16 years and over). Kennedy, J. C. Wages and family budgets in the Chicago stock yards district, 1914. (Men.) Massachusetts Bureau of statistics: Annual report on the statistics of manu- factures for the year 1913. (18 years and over.) Massachusetts — ^Bureau of statistics: Wages and hours in the paper and wood pulp industry, 1914. (16 years and over.) New Jersey — ^Bureau of statistics: Annual report of labor and industries of New Jersey for the year ending October 31, 1913. (16 years and over.) Report on strike at Bethlehem steel works, 1910. 6l8t Cong., 3d Sess., Senate Doc. No. 521. Strike investigation committee of the Copper County Commercial Club» 1913. Strike of textile workers in Lawrence, Mass., in 1912. 62d Cong., 2d Seas., Senate Doc. No. 870. (18 years and over.) U. S. Bureau of labor: Bulletin No. 139. Michigan copper district strike, 1914. U. S. Bureau of labor statistics: Wages, etc., in the dress and waist in- dustry in New York City, 1913. (Men.) U. S. Immigration Commission: Reports. (18 years and over.) Woman and Cidid wage-earners in the United States, 1910. 61st Cong., 2d Sess., Senate Doc No. 645. (18 years and over.) Woolstoo, H. B. Wages in New York. (ResulU of New York factory investigating commission.) Survey, February 6, 1915. ' 34 CONDITIONS OF LABOR WEEKLY WAGES OF MALE ElfPLOYEES Industky Number Agricultural implements: New Jersey report 621 Msssachusetts report 585 Kansas report 79 Census report, 1905 30,679 Immigration G>mmiasion 21,104 Boots and shoes: New Jersey report 2,536 Massachusetts report 56,520 Census report, 1905 59,142 Immigration Commission 9,906 Boxes: New Jersey Report 1,289 Massachusetts report: Fancy and paper 1,518 Wooden packing 3,628 Kansas report 413 New Yorlc Factory luTestigating Commission 2,194 Woman and Child Wage-earners: Cigar boxes 292 Paper boxes 809 Census report, 1905: Cigar boxes 1,361 Fancy and paper 5,484 Canneries: Massachusetts report 1,353 Kansas report 47 Woman and Child Wage-earners: Fruits and vegetables 355 Oyster 152 Census report, 1905 : Pish 5,557 FruiU and vegeubles 16,717 ' Oysters 213 Cigars and tobacco: New Jersey report 2,283 Massachusetts report 3,235 Kansas report 123 Woman and Child Wage-earners: Cigars 4,465 Cigarettes 460 Tobacco and snuff 2,597 Census report, 1905: Cigars and cigarettes 46,680 Tobacco, chewing and smoking, and snuff 8,703 Per cent earning under specified amounts r $6 $10 $15 $20 3.9 1.5 1.3 8.3 • •• • 34.3 23.6 6.3 48.0 20.7 78.7 76.9 69.6 82.6 66.0 94.2 94.5 88.6 96.3 96.4 9.5 1.2 12.0 • • . • 34.5 13.5 40.5 30.7 67.4 44.8 74.7 70.5 88.6 76.4 93.0 96.1 11.3 41.7 76.6 94.9 1.1 1.4 1.2 15.9 25.7 28.6 6