conditions of labor in american industries

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STOCK WELL-MUDD LIBRARIES, Albion College 4b beexpeaete: 9092 J a CONDITIONS OF LABOR IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Conditions of Labor in American Industries A SUMMARIZATION OF THE RESULTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS BY Wes] Rita A GK AND EDGAR SYDENSTRICKER FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON 1917 CopyricHT, 1917, sy FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY [Printed in the United States of America] Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 Published, April, 1917 CONTENTS CHAPTER I—THE LABOR FORCE The Racial Composition of Industrial Workers . The Native White American 5 The Foreign-born Wage-earners The Germans : Wage-earners from Ausiaatitredry : ~_ rhe Poles and the Italians The “War Order” Industries Racial Distribution in Industries Extent of Trade-Union Membership . , Size and Variety of Trade-Union Greantoaien : Growth in Union Membership Proportion of Workers © leper : Women in Industry A ale The Employment of @iildren® : CHAPTER II.—WAGES AND EARNINGS Weekly Wages of Male Workers ane Wages of Workers of Different Races . Wages in Various Industries ; Weekly Wages of Female Workers . Differences in Women’s Wages Recording tai The gusity sn) The Difference in anes af Men ee Women Workers Annual Earnings of Wage-workers Soho. ao Recent Increases in Wage Rates . MY v1 CONTENTS CHAPTER III—LOSS IN WORKING TIME PAGE The Wage-earner’s Loss in Working Time . 74 General Statistics and Statements . 76 Statistics for Specific Industries . 81 Statistics for Specific Trades and Cen oatens 93 The Extent of Unemployment . 100 CHAPTER IV.—CONDITIONS CAUSING IRREGULAR EMPLOYMENT Analysis of the Causes of Loss in Working Time, or Unemployment ‘ 117 Evolutionary Changes Affecting Bees oa 119 Changes in Industrial Structure and Methods . 120 Changes in Demand for Labor According to Industry : 122 Changes in Demand Te Tabor Recs 6 Locality 123 Changes in Demand on Tae Tee to ie ie troduction of Machinery and New Pro- cesses . - 520 Changes in Oresnisation of Tadeo ee Changes in the Quantity and Character of the Labor Supply. . 131 Variations in the Demand for ner ae c Plucis tions and Irregularities in Industry . Ey. Fluctuations, Cyclical . S.F30 Fluctuations, Seasonal . T4y Irregular Employment 152 Conditions Determining the Workers s Ability iB Cree or Retain the Opportunity to be meee which Industry Offers Nike 164 Effects of Unemployment . CONTENTS =, CHAPTER V.—WORKING CONDITIONS Hoursiotelabor + .. 2 The Trend Toward a Shorter, WWoione Day The Working Day in the Principal Industries . Industrial Accidents 5 Occupational Accident ead , Causes of Industrial Accidents . Nature of Injuries : Economic Significance of Trducree erdentce Hazards from Harmffil Substances . Insanitary Conditions in Places of Work Profit-sharing and Bonus Plans . Employers’ Welfare Work : Labor and Scientific Management CHAPTER VI—THE WAGE-EARNER’S FAMILY Annual Incomes of Wage-working Families Distribution of Wage-working Families Accord- ing to Income Distribution of Wage- a asietin Ramilies of Dike. ent Races According to Income ; Differences in Family Income According to cee graphic Divisions . : ‘ Differences in Family Income eeediag 15 In- dustry . ‘ siete ee es Sources of Family Toone , Expenditures of Wage-working Bamnities : CHAPTER VII—LIVING CONDITIONS vil PAGE “ The Diet of Wage-working Families . 283 “Housing Conditions ee rine or 24201 Living Arrangements . 295 Ownership of Homes 302 ue208 Community Environment . EN Vili The Prevalence of Sickness Among Wage-earners. The Greater Prevalence of Disease Among Indus- Harmful Conditions in Praces of Epaployment™ Working Conditions CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII—THE WAGE-EARNER’S HEALTH trial Workers . Occupational Disease Hazards Harmful Substances ; Metals, ese eee. Ayanure and Fumes Fatigue which Cause Morbidity According ‘5 Caipauen Mortality According to Occupation . Irregularity of Employment and Health . ‘Unhealthful Living Conditions Inadequate Diet : Bad Housing Conditions . : Effects of Unfavorable Cones anton . 336 - 342 upon Health The Employment of Women . Poverty and Disease PAGE - 315 - 317 Excessive ae - 323 - 323 ayo same 329 - 330 - 334 - 334 » 335 . 344 CHAPTER IX.—THE ADEQUACY OF WAGES AND EARNINGS Adequacy of Earnings of Male Workers to i ae Families The Adequacy of Women's s eee : The Adequacy of Family Income The Point of Adequate Subsistence . Studies of Minimum Standards of Family aca The Workingman’s Family and Higher Living Cost. Index . e PREFACE THE present volume is designed to meet a practical need for a compact collection of the results of the large number of investigations and studies of conditions under which the American wage-earner and his family work and live. It is presented merely as a summarization of the principal and fundamental facts that have been ascer- tained during the past decade and a half; it is not in- tended to be a critical discussion of these facts, or to be an argument in favor of or against any partizan con- clusion, or any remedial program. Such conclusions as to the existence of a condition, or, set of conditions, as appeared to be clearly warranted by the facts ascertained by official arid other authoritative data, have been sug- gested, but the attempt has been made to avoid the state- ment of opinions or of conclusions which, altho the authors may feel convinced of their truth, are not gen- erally agreed upon as the actual results of the various inquiries. The presentation of the data has been confined to the conditions of wage-earners in manufacturing and mining industries because comparable data for workers in trade (with some exceptions), transportation, and agriculture, have not been found available. The summarization of even these data has been found to be extremely difficult because methods of investigation have varied; because there has been a wide difference in the scope of the in- ix x PREFACE quiries; and because their results have often been stated in terms and in forms often impossible of comparison. So far as practicable the effort has been made to state the _ results of investigations in comparable terms, but com- putations have been studiously avoided in order to allow the results of various investigations to be given in their original form. In statements of earnings, for example, computations and estimates based upon daily and hourly rates have not been employed; only statements of actual earnings as shown in the reports of investigations have been used. It has been deemed best, in presenting a col- lection of data from many different sources, to shun the introduction of the element of statistical speculation as to general conclusions, which must necessarily be founded frequently upon meager or slightly related facts. The mass of detail which students of labor conditions have accumulated in recent years is so great as to render impossible the inclusion in a single volume of a consider- able amount of descriptive material. The authors have therefore been compelled to sacrifice much interesting and some illuminating data in order to keep within the limits of a practical handbook. The result is a statement, rather than description, of some of the fundamental conditions of labor in modern industry in the United States, which, it is hoped, will prove useful to the student, be he in the classroom or in his vocation, employer or employee, busi- ness man, social worker or legislator. It is thoroughly realized by the authors that since the summer of 1915 there have been marked changes in wages, hours, and employment due to unusual industrial PREFACE xh activity. Attention has been called to these changes at various points in the presentation and, wherever there have been sufficient data, the general effects of these changes have been suggested. As yet, however, the re- sults of investigations of the changed conditions of labor are not available. Moreover, the permanency of the changed conditions during the past two years is, it is be- lieved, generally regarded as problematical in considerable degree. The summary presented in this volume is thus a summary of conditions as they have been found to exist in the period roughly indicated as beginning with 1900 and ending with 1914 or 1915. Much of the labor and facilities necessary for such a summarization were rendered possible by the fact that the authors were assigned to undertake a similar task for the Federal Commission on Industrial Relations, the re- sults of which, however, were not published. The authors desire to express acknowledgments to other members of the Commission’s staff for such data as they collected in unpublished reports made for the Commission’s use, and especially to Mr. J. H. Bradford, Miss Frances Valiant, Mr. Leifur Magnusson, and Dr. Ralph D. Fleming, who for a time were assigned to assist the authors. The volume contains considerable data later collected and added, however, and particular acknowledgments are due to Mr. Leifur Magnusson for the preparation of some of the material not included in the scope of the Commission’s assignment. The sections on Profit-Sharing, Welfare Work, and Scientific Management were also prepared by Mr. Magnusson. The Index was prepared by Mr. E. Kletsch of the Catalog Division, Library of Congress. Aes 4 ne] ‘, CONDITIONS OF LABOR IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES I THE LABOR FORCE THE RACIAL COMPOSITION OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS SEVERAL years ago the former United States Immi- gration Commission conducted an exhaustive inquiry as to the racial composition of American industry, and the situation at present is practically the same as it was when this investigation was made. The extent to which differ- ent alien races were employed in American industries, as disclosed by the Immigration Commission, summarily stated, was as follows: Native-born Americans of native father, 25 per cent. Native-born Americans of foreign father, 17 per cent. PoLeipn-DOLiyy oars ore ee ee ns > yo OG. peracent. Fewer than one out of every four workers in our basic industries are, therefore, native Americans; while more than three out of every five industrial workers are of for- eign birth. The remainder, constituting about 17 per cent., are immigrant workmen of the second generation. Of the native American workers in mines, mills, etc., one- fifth are negroes, and four-fifths, whites. On the basis of general nativity, 42 per cent. of the industrial forces are of native birth while 58 per cent. were born abroad. The Native White American The native-born white American, or native-born whites of native fathers, are employed most extensively in the I 2 CONDITIONS. OF “LABOR manufacture of cigars and tobacco, collars and cuffs, glass, gloves and shoes. Only a small percentage, ranging from one-fifth to one-tenth of the wage-earners in the leading branches of American industries, are native white Americans. The native negroes have their largest num- bers of workers in cigar and tobacco manufacturing, bituminous coal mining, and in construction work in the Southern States; considerable proportions are also em- ployed in slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. _ The Foreign-born Wage-earners The proportion which foreign-born wage-earners con- stitute of the total operating forces of some of our lead- ing industries may be briefly stated, as follows: Per cent. of INDUSTRY all employees Agricultural implements and vehicles Bee aha 44,5 Bootssand, "shoes 1.) 7.) ms) oes eee) ee ena Cigarstand £ODACCO<s: cos: ci plea ecron kel ae cct eer A Clothine eee. eae dete ER eo ee Bituminous coal ines o's, ) Seca enlges oe ee AEROS Copper mining and smelting SAP on a ass. GS Cottonigoods manufacturing. sess) ce ee ee eto OE IMGboonabbry wehbe eaaames Cy Ry ae 45 ae ac as SSO Glass manufacturing ve SA. et oe ee Tron and steel manufacturing bie, Weoe ARE) aoe OS NicdeyaWrehgewinhelle nen een an Os Pee ay Waa ca SS Leather manufacturing OER VERE er Oiltrehningyy. “est Noses.) Smee oa ee Oa Silk dyeing .. .. PP SAR Gah can, FAC: Silk goods monddeccucine Re tole eR ry Mc ys aN Slaughteringand meat packing imme nmtnin cine ene OL Sugar refining .. . ot ate nee OO Woolen and worsted Goods manufacturing Steg to mesa. 10 Plectric supplies: manufacturing: alee aero Firearms manufacturing ere AAA Rr) Sa CE) Houndry andimachineyshopsmeenmrci mites cuneate amen ‘Dotals(alleadine industries) ) ame een IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 3 The Germans The German industrial workers of the second genera- tion, as well as those of recent arrival in this country, are most extensively employed in agricultural implement and vehicle manufacturing, boot and shoe factories, clothing, glass, gloves, iron and steel, leather, oil refining, silk goods, silk dyeing, slaughtering and meat packing, elec- tric supplies, cutlery and tools, car building, firearms, foundry and machine shops, locomotive building, hosiery and knit goods, zinc smelting and refining. Wage-earners from Austria-Hungary The principal wage-earners from Austria-Hungary are Bohemians, Croatians, Magyars and Slovaks. Most of these industrial workers are of recent arrival, and com- paratively small proportions of those of the second gen- eration, or of native birth but of foreign father, are employed. Croatians are found in largest numbers in rail- road and other construction work, copper mining and smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, iron ore mining, slaughtering and meat packing, bituminous coal mining, leather manufacturing, and oil refining. Magyars, or Hungarians, are distributed throughout all industries, the greatest numbers being found in iron and steel manufac- turing, bituminous coal mining, silk dyeing, and sugar manufacturing. The Slovaks are most largely employed in bituminous coal mining, oil refining, and iron and steel manufacturing. The Bohemians have their largest pro- portions engaged in manufacturing clothing, agricultural implements and vehicles, in slaughtering and meat pack- 4 CONDITIONS OF LABOR ing, and in making electric supplies. They are also well represented in the manufacture of glass, gloves, iron and steel, furniture and leather. Altogether, wage-earners from Austria-Hungary make up, at least, 15 per cent. of the operating forces of our leading industries. The Poles and the Italians Italians, both from the north and south of Italy, are extensively employed and constitute about 7 per cent. of the total number of industrial workers. Their largest numbers ate engaged in railroad and other construction work, iron ore and bituminous coal mining, and in the manufacture of clothing, foundry and machine shops, and hosiery and knit goods mills. The Poles are af work in practically all branches of industry, the greater propor- tion being employed in sugar refineries, cotton mills, fur- niture factories, bituminous coal mines, slaughtering and meat packing, leather manufacturing, car and locomotive building, zinc mining and smelting, in foundry and machine shops, and in the rope, twine and hemp industry. The “War Order” Industries Probably the racial make-up of the operating forces of ‘industries which have received European war orders has changed in some cases, especially in the manufacture of explosives, since the investigation of the Immigration Commission. So far as information is available, how- ever, it will be of value to note the conditions in those branches of industry most directly related to war. In the manufacture of firearms, the Immigration Commis- IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 5 sion found that two-fifths of the employees were of for- eign birth, the principal races represented being French- Canadians, English, Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, Scotch and Swedes. In foundries and machine shops, 55 per cent. of the workers were of foreign birth, the leading races being English, German, Irish, Italians, Swedes and Poles. In cutlery and tool establishments, 63 per cent. of the wage-earners were foreign-born, the largest pro- portions being composed of Swedes, Germans, Irish, Poles and English. . In the coal mines, the Slovaks, Poles, and Italians, and Croatians predominate, as well as in-the labor forces of iron and steel plants and blast furnaces. Racial Distribution in Industries Altogether, 56 distinct races were found by the Immi- gration Commission to be represented at work in the lead- ing branches of American industry. Almost one-half of the foreign-born workers were from Southern and East- ern Europe, the largest numbers of those of foreign birth being from Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, and the Bal- kans. The distribution of employees by races in 21 basic industries of the country is shown in the table on pp. 6 and 7, in terms of percentages. This table was compiled by the former United States Immigration Commission and is based on data secured from 507,256 wage-earners.’ Similar information was secured for 16 minor indus- tries including 112,339 employees. This is set forth in the table on p. 8, in terms of percentages: by sex and industry.” 1 Report of U. S. Immigration Commission Abstract of Reports on Immigrants in Mining and Manufacturing, Washington, 1911, Vol. I, pp. 332-333. 2 Idem, pp. 343-345. RACE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES FOR WHOM INFORMATION WAS SECURED, BY INDUSTRY; PERCENTAGES (Stupy oF EMPpLoyeEEs) [Only races represented by 500 or more employees are shown in detail] a) atndant sod 49 2 4 spoos cK "56 Ao SS S S pojsIoM pure [OOM awl = S 2 — CxS SNE BOOSCAOSTN 1 ot et w Lo) ~~~) | ssi NEOUS O Oe eos ee oe Buryoed qyeour mre <i l OnS <i pue surtoazysne[S gs = ooo HHP MOAANO tHS NQ =i58 Teds ps ; spoo3 31S S mw sous agua Ss Aloo SG hah ee aA MON wet BureAP TIS x et On ta Oe Olas CnC Clete maa Burugels [IO = = pe Saeki ‘s 2 a ee Sse CASINO CL CN CV 2 OO EE SOD ae Joy}ee] OS a = Noo aen HOn oe SCH SC HK Say eues aoe BZururul aio UoIyT 2D S 3 S se =aAN — 9938 pue uoly St mw s SS AQNAWOMONONSOS GS VS S@A0|S) e st dd Nee A Rats ee ES RE eS 3 EN re Sse Sg Se iS a ANNs Canam AT N o aA nN 1 my 9MyUIN T os Bua as s SO Anant ond ok] Ts) — me = Saran S) tens: SN spoos 003309, 3s cs) Ss Ss S Burg[ouIs cP os acres Re hey pue Zururu 1eddog ar S OS) ES LICE COS aa et eo S me = — oe ee Bee YOM UOT}ONIysUOd S ss sn S 3s 30 syrys che Te “eae eee Sr pus ‘synod ‘sieljoo nm nN (snourur he TOT RNS EN ae 2 : anKs A an Sa ST S -nyiq) Burutur yeo9g Ne ~— LS 7 Sats PD ot OS St OS CD UCD = Bury30 » re) San AN CS SBS TS MHIOTD = Spee: AIIOMNDO Ue tet a “> 0008qG0} PUB SIBBIO zm = ot S S ees: \ SS Sco Sr =i Ge an ban) = Le] be) N Le) ~*~ wy N ~” bel ~ -_ seoys pue sjoog $ Ma Ad SS Po? 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Peed (1:82 ps Set aes vrais , a oS £ 2k S mMO::- Ee eNOS ne: iii cnm nes a i OP no ¢ eee 17 1MO BSS Gg iBa ig iii ik FR ead 3 ae td EE ceo bh Bede edad Ok EG Peek (a Psips Boge = ‘da so So SOG ate B4aa,y, of ‘Hanes Zagato g SRRGISESoEBSHZESE SS ayaa g & ssas5 |2 emed ot ap o* qq Ca ° Vv Gee seem e EPC R baa a CUES EE aEs eo8 se hoe aw ae San nssagsgtonoor san [exe) 6 OLLQAB HD 4 SOSORAREEOOME SAT ASSZAA MM MaGRnARGEO goss F o%00 G && ~ RACE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN 16 INDUSTRIES FOR WHOM CERTAIN INFORMATION WAS SECURED, BY PERCENTAGES . 2 INDUSTRY [Only races represented by 500 or more employees are shown in detail] (Stupy or EMPLOYEES) Male BuLmnypoemueur nd MANMADMON OO pue Buryjeurs ourz 3 _ S oN Surinyoejnueu basil AAACMeIt eH iH JopIMedsL gS mMOoD Se a .] WAM OS awite i = uor7ey10dsuri} N ~ aro -_ ae) _ AvMpIeL UIea1S (a) MHPOWM HON SuLInjoejnuewt 2 » - ° Nol -_ Sn! -_ = eurlyoeur BuImMes NEoetnooo suLinyoejnuewt : a on at = ww dutey pue ‘aut ‘adoy Sum yoejnueuw sjonpoid iedeg NOEnFHOOMm a CNoCo = = wn N _ Sulinjzovjnueur as MOSCONE OO _~ djnd poom pue Jadeg oa “onan Sr a Buriredsr on MFAGCAGTAGH cot ~ pue SurIpfmaq earjouI0D07T ~ AA SuLInjzoEjnueU mo SOI EDO ee ICON spoo3 jiuy pue Alaisoyy 2 mNCO “a SULINJeINULU syonpoid mush bc, NAAM TN COIS TON doys ouryoeur pue Aipuno,y mse aNSS - = i) MONMMANHA CoO SuULMpORjNuLcUt Wve BARES es SuLinzoejnueur soyddns 9113091] ek) Anownannnw = a No a w a =< ir) uorjeziodsuesy 296 e ONO ae ABATE O1IqOe[ A g ANE Detct Surmyoejnueur 20 NOnnonrtear O99 JOO} pue ArayynDg 2 —aHH ° Brees . m7 00 MUAMSOMYEMAO aA Uptedar pus Surpiing IBD he mon BE es oN AnNYANNANt aH Sulmypormuew jodieg S SCE ates a Signi ta CSN a, ion comet mga <b 8 - Set Gtive venisucs) at's) Aamir é < Giga: 25> Sc eee % Git ne Ros stat se Re & oe eee a SI by tag? 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S22 Rien be ue h> ssi 8 Bae Castine 162g: -+' +34 we 8-68 Tes Si. eh ey lpia! yar 2109 oO of q Aa.g : Begshisy ppOrne en Pea wage eau ig: cae & £268 aeliqaseseaeeas © 22: ey Bog e467 og Sedo or am BBRAOOCSBSORS oo (oie) See Ieheaand sich] ‘ Spy ow O98 e oo a Less than 0.05 per cent, CONDITIONS OF LABOR IO RACE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN 16 INDUSTRIES FOR WHOM CERTAIN INFORMATION WAS SECURED, BY INDUSTRY; PERCENTAGES—Continued SuLinjzoemuvur Jopimeda 7, pe ULAaS Surmyornueu durey pue ‘our ‘ado surmyou surTyoeur SsuLmMyoRjnueut sponpoid Jodeg sulinyoejmueur MANNAOM Oe ° djnd poom pur sodv, ANMm x ol a a A ‘4 ; SHS Ind poom p d = 2 S|] #8 EO Sum yorjnueur > ea eee re oI a Ne) MLE OTD Ls rm e9 spoo3 we AratsoT2 HAM HA aN NAW + “aSalo non poos yruy p 1sO}] gL ay ~“ 18] Ska BuLmMyovjnuvur syonpoid Saad Boop ae sre ot SSIEE SING SEN OES 00 CNA SHEEN 17 007 | aM doys ouryorur pue Arpuno SS ARANOMH MO adidisiiN NO” CW ; Hn vt TY P punoy Ry S inet Sutmyorjnueur © Mace amen Oaks ICI MOG eer reid || =) |[l) eee Nwidiogy; momen es ae sorddns o11o0,q 3 SSO MO rect CN RICN eM ie) Ne he Zest = To) HOOOOOMOD SCHNOHOOMMMNONDOOOH |—o a Surmyoemueu yodred AQ anaMnsd Ty HG Rye se et ae ya em Pe wna N be) Ss Athyn oO iat > he LD a ORS * . DURE Sik poate ak sgn ey DarataP age oa ae ae ° ar a > 5 (BP. PR Antena ery 8 Be "6 OMOEA eee Ca Orhan cee IC) Smee of Ye hans a og bh Sat ect taach atk ign dre peo} S pe = at) OMNRCE O RCRMC ha ymeciiers oO er airy anne a apres 8 “Pa eo FO 8 Ey ee £ “Os « - ale ra at amt oie Ie ees 2 ‘cs mieeieltshin eo. a0 Bed os iss °) if FI 4 q 9689 a) Se N eI PMOS' Gl ra cme ale ke ta eee me cecal a -£ 88 oI Pp oS Ree ld arate OS Bes: Gada nos z G0 ORR Geshe ec) OSA ORm EMSS Iel Ca 2 hs loa ian Oe rac ons ¢ -APOadaig 2 OFS aSSaad::- au ig ag § Seog 4 SOS Seq paged useceves aa geskescgs, 6 2853 Pie 00 PD a wES AB oOo Swr oa MARS SSG Segk : i Oa Sad owe ogaaa ws g og a§a obeo5 22 aR eee a8 SHO Aarne ded ade soso oRd pets el F BaP AEGRAORCRRGEORS COOMOOHSEASRadaO 8 Bas 6 ei BS 5 SLES a a & & Be a Less than 0.05 per cent. IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES i EXTENT OF TRADE-UNION MEMBERSHIP The extent of trade-union membership in the United States can be only approximated because no single agency, either private or official, attempts to collect statistics of trade-union membership regularly.* Recently, however, studies of the extent and the growth of labor organiza- tion in the United States by Wolman* and by Barnett ® have provided bases for a very much closer estimate of the actual number of organized wage-workers, and of the proportion they bear to the total number of wage-earners, than has been possible heretofore. Professor Barnett’s study includes the year 1914 and its results are sum- marized briefly below. Size and Variety of Trade-Union Organization A grand total of about 2,700,000 members of trade unions in the United States in 1913 and 1914 is indicated. This was the highest figure attained up to that time. In 1897 it was 444,500; in 1905, 1,945,000, and in 1910, 2,138,000. The following table, abridged from Professor Barnett’s detailed statistics,© shows the membership in 1914 of each union and group of unions, the classifica- 8 The statistics published annually by the American Federation of Labor cover only those unions which are affiliated with it, and the unions in the Federation are not the same over any given series of years. The New York Department of Labor (now under the New York Industrial Commission) has, since 1906, pub- lished annually statistics of American trade-union membership supplementary to the statistics published by the Federation which, since 1911, are probably i lose approximations. ee Wolmnan: The Extent of Labor Organization in the United States in , Quarterly Journal of Economics, May, 1916. F POs Coote E. Aeon Growth of Labor Organization in the United States, 1897-1914, Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 1916. ; 6 Statistics of membership were obtained by Professor Barnett directly from 12 CONDITIONS OF LABOR tion of unions into groups being very similar to the classi- fication used by the British Board of Trade. The large variety of labor organizations, as well as their distinctive- ness along industrial lines, is clearly indicated : Membership of American Trade Unions, 1914 Building: Bricklayers and masons. 2 .« .. -. ss /oaOc UG Bridge and iron work .. .. .. «2 « +. «- 13200 Buildings abOrers a) a0 ccleiee mits trercmees cor 9,800 Carpenters.(United sia ise.. se ceclasts vs) oan esmee eee Cement: workmice tote ss eee ete nce ee 7,300 Geramic tielayers tie e.. ) ee ce eee 3,000 Composition’ rooters.. o. 3.0 eee coe eee 1,600 Compressed ‘ainiwork?csc. oo.) ce eee) eee 1,000 Electrical work (A. F. of L. ) See te CEL SE OL Elevator constructors seen kc) Wace enn ae 2,700 TIeaband ASbEStOS WOLKnen a aicenmree anc ee ene 1,000 ROdtCarriersyh ors. tein ec Aone ae ee ee Marbles workmen Rciinodias oo soa ue eee oe 4,100 Paintersiy Uke csi) & coy scl sci koe ates ees Ge ee Plasterers: oc. pantie ee ce) San Sel Pace ee UG Plambers' Whew Wise Mes bacco) cane ke ECO) sheetimetaliwork)) wR es? io ee ee UG Slaterandstiletroorerso\ fo mec) os ee 600 Wood and metalilathers.. 7) 2 ee sacl eee 6,700 Potal an GTOUp! cas Pn ee Cr Oa Cae official publications of the unions or from union officials wherever possible. These were supplemented by statistics of affiliated unions taken from the reports of the American Federation of Labor, and by statistics of unaffiliated unions from the reports of the New York Department of Labor. For an explanation and discussion of the sources of the data and of the methods employed in this compilation, see Barnett, loc. cit., p. 785, IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Metal, machinery, and shipbuilding: Blacksmiths Boiler makers Carriage work .. Car work Chandelier work Cutting die makers .. Diamond work .. , _ Engineers, Amalgamated Foundry employees .. Tron, steel and tin work .. Machinists .. Metal polishers. . Metal work, Rrotherhioad Molders Pattern makers.. Pocket knife grinders Railway carmen.. Saw smiths.. Stove mounters Wire weavers Total in group Textile: Cloth weavers .. Elastic goring weavers .. Lace operatives... Loomfixers é Machine textile gone Print cutters Spinners Textile work Wool sorters and graders Total in group 13 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Mining and quarrying: Miners, Western Federation Mine workers. United Quarry work Slate work .. Total in group Transportation : Commercial telegraphers Locomotive engineers Locomotive firemen Longshoremen : sy eS Sg Maintenance of way rote hk eis Marine engineers Masters, mates, and pilots Mechanical trackmen .. Paversi.. ve Paving cutters .. Railroad freight peers Railroad signalmen .. Railroad station agents .. Railroad station employees .. Railroad telegraphers Railroad trainmen .. Railway clerks .. Railway conductors... Seamen an Steam shovelmen ae ee Street and electric railway employees Switchmen .. Teamsters .. es Tunnel constructors.. Total in group IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Clothing: Cloth hat and cap makers Garment work . Glove work.. Hatters : Ladies’ garment oot Straw and ladies’ hatters Tailors Total in group Paper, printing and bookbinding: Bookbinders Lithographers Lithographic press feeders Lithographic workmen .. Machine printers Paper makers Photo-engravers Poster artists Printing pressmen Pulp and paper mill nk Steel plate printers .. Steel plate transferrers.. Stereotypers and electrotypers Typographical Total in group Leather : Boot and shoe work Boot and shoe cutters Leather work on horse goods Shoe work, United . Traveling goods and jeathér Brant ceaty Total in group 15 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Lumber and woodworking: Box makers and sawyers Coopers Seer Piano and organ work .. Timber work Upholsterers Wood-carvers Total in group Chemical, clay, glass and stone: Brick, tile work Flint glass work Glass bottle blowers... Glass work, Amalgamated Granite cutters .. Potters, operative Powder work Stone-cutters ae Window glass snappers .. Window glass work.. Total in group Public service: Government employees .. Letter carriers .. eS Post office clerks, Assoc. Post office clerks, Fed. .. Railway mail association Railway postal clerks State, city employees Total in group IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 17 Food, liquor and tobacco: PMOL VE WOT Re A Nate, wine RNS et ot 15,700 PPCINETULWWOTG cit aie cr Sacks. hs" We she a ev s,0. 67,600 Borertiakers Miata 258 a6 ae came hs eh 48500 EMC WAKES Arce We S hho eo! Lech ag Kine as 1,400 Me GDACCORWORK Goce en veciiares ae «cel lek eel con ne 3,700 etabineroup. A 32. ks Ae oe Pe 8s 1,136,900 Restaurant and trade: ibutchereworkse poncho. tolls. Cs ae ee ie 2,000 iEvorel@eniployees! ceca feo) asso Sissel Ge aa Peet een 59000 EI QtCURWOT-ere te eS eles) sc Bees! sis Lec. eee ee 1 Z,000 WMieHERCULLEl Stun et sem. Gis, 0's). cls) oS, yore. isnnere 6,200 Retail eclenksa mem itcabev er sete ate ce tree cle: ies tk; Q00 MoOtalanyevOUp Palas, ose) baie. sick icemites ee, 94,800 Miscellaneous: Barbers TL Uh cde bs sfdett On| aro ersts atl. s'5 Br O4,000 AUBDOStCLS via ee ok efomec ol a) s/t atl. Gre 1) oton A cin 1,400 IBTOOIsIMAKCES Wate de. Bical in's, (ee ote s | kesh .set U's 700 iBrushemakers a.) ni Weebl OE: _ 200 Trade and Fed. Unions a 'F, of e ) Pet eee 275200 SUTAWOL Kane Meine ian Benes see silt eh thse ps 800 ELOLSESHOCTSMEmn cries tee se sis) Tal als Wat 5,700 I. W. W. fchicavey “im CS Gea ony eee a eee VALET ERR WER CD CLTOlb ete eos) leno Mais tote 80: 2,000 TY Rei ele Sea ey Pp are a ee 2,800 Starionatyeiremenrer sa maxci seal sens) ile) ie 16,000 STOMINPeNCHICENG aii <. <5 900. ovo ae ae 3s 20,000 Pot erOupt eae oss ban) fey es en Led, 4O0 18 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Theaters and music: Musical and theatrical union .. .. «- «+ «- 6,000 IMG iSEROC, Ge boo ae! oc ae ao) ad 60,000 Theatrical stage employees .. .. .. -- +» ++ 15,000 White Rats Actors’ Union .. .. .. «- «- + 11,000 Total in group . +. Sb e.c) ee e+) see ee Total in all groups .. .. “« “a0 «= «2/0/4400 Growth in Union Membership The annual statistics from 1897 to 1914 have ex- hibited, in the main, a steady growth. There were, how- ever, several marked variations. It is interesting to note that these variations reflected very closely the changes in business conditions, a loss of membership resulting when- ever a depression occurred and an increase in member- ship whenever a period of prosperity took place. Thus from 1897 to 1904 there was a period of uninterrupted increase in membership from 444,500 to 2,072,600; from 1904 to 1909 the membership was practically stationary, concurrent with business depressions in 1904 and 1907; and from 1909 to 1913 another period of increase in membership and of absence of depressions. It is quite probable that the slight decrease in 1914 has been more than offset in the period of industrial activity which be- gan in the summer of 1915, if we may judge from the reports of the American Federation of Labor and from statements of a number of trade-union officials. The following table shows for each group the per cent. of the total trade-union membership contained in each group for each of the years 1897, 1900, 1910, and 1914, IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 19 the groups being arranged in the order of their im- portance in 1897:" PER CENT, OF TOTAL MEMBERSHIP IN EACH GROUP OF UNIONS IN THE YEARS 1897, 1900, 1910 AND 1914 1897 1900 1910 1914 LRM MORRNTN Ba. S59 We ode ao ne. OR WAR ey AK Building .. 2 eeerls2 IVE DS PAU Metal, machinery Ged shipbuilding ells 9.3 9.2 8.4 Hood, liquor and tobacco ..... .. — 99 7.6 5.4 5.1 Paper, printing and bookbinding .. .. 8.5 55 4.2 4.1 Chemical, clay, glass andestoneuns 5 anne 3.4 2.8 ee Miningrandrquarrying 99s.) Se ce 68 47 15a 12.9 14.2 Clothing a aE GRE Ned Saeed 2.9 4.6 5.9 Leather 53), a te SRC eee eine eS. 0.8 ZA Za BePiplicuseryice™ fa west ss es ee 25 18 Daf 3.0 exter meteMie ee tdce “el Tee wis Los 8 0.9 1.0 te MBeaTerS sand «NUSIC «6 <i. oe ies se LD ial 2.8 3.4 ivestatrants atid trade 95. @o.. =. 1:4 AWA 2.8 3.5 Lumber and woodworking .. .. .. 12 3.0 ie3 0.9 IMascellaneGusmn sim es ee eet ee OAS 5.8 4.4 4.6 It will be noted that the transportation, building and mining groups have contained about half of the total trade-union membership, and over half of the total in- crease in membership has been in these unions. The groups showing an actual decrease in their relative im- portance are paper, printing and bookbinding and the chemical, clay, glass, and stone groups; these, however, were already fairly well organized in 1897. The total increase in trade-union membership appeared to be at a much more rapid rate than the increase in population, or in the number of gainfully occupied persons. Proportion of Workers Organized The census statistics of occupations do not permit of an accurate separation of “wage-earners” from the total 7 Barnett, loc. cit., p. 793, 20 CONDITIONS OF LABOR of those who are enumerated as “gainfully employed,” but by deducting employers or self-employed.and fee- receiving workers (professional), an approximation of the total number of wage-earners is possible. In 1900 there were 21,837,050 such wage-earners and in 1910, 30,267,000. Using these figures and the statistics of trade-union membership for the same years as bases for computation, Professor Barnett has estimated that the trade-union membership was 4 per cent. of the total number of wage-earners in 1900 and 7 per cent. in 1910. In view of the lessened rate of immigration and the increase in union membership in 1915 and 1916, it is very probable that the ratio was considerably higher at the end of 1916 than in IgIo. WOMEN IN INDUSTRY The proportion of women Io years of age and over in gainful occupations in the United States increased from 18.3 per cent. in 1900 to 21.2 per cent. in 1910. The largest proportionate increase was in the number engaged in personal and domestic service (explained as due to a change in classification as between the different cen- suses), followed by an increase of from 10.6 per cent. in trade and transportation to 15.8 between 1900 and 1910. Here opportunities for women have probably increased. In agriculture a substantial increase has occurred—o.4 per cent. to 14.4 per cent. In manufacturing and mechanical pursuits only has a decrease occurred—from 18.5 per cent. to 16.4 per cent. There is not an industry group embraced in the Federal Census report in which IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 21 women are not employed. The different branches of in- dustry in which the largest proportion of women were reported in 1910 were as follows: Paint factories. Munition and fireworks establishments. Chemical works. Soap factories. Clothing manufacturing. Corset, glove and hat factories. Candy factories. Manufacture of food products. Wagon and carriage manufacturing. Leather and leather products manufacturing. Shoe factories. Clock and watch and jewelry factories. Box factories. Paper products manufacturing. Printing and publishing. Cotton, knitting, woolen, lace and embroidery, linen, silk, and carpet mills. Button factories. Rubber factories. Straw factories. Laundries. A large part of the office staffs of banks, insurance companies, brokerage offices and real estate firms were composed of girls and women. Slightly more than one- sixth of the total number of persons employed in whole- sale and retail trade were female persons. Almost one- half of the workers in professional service, and two- thirds of those in domestic service, were also women and girls. 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Ysnsg pus moorg 62Z'S§ °° ** *t ** + “Siu payszom pue uaoos, pefojdurs Aqnyures SoTeuIoz SdNOUr) AXLSNGN] Te}0L (pe331uI0 UsUIOM QOg UeY} ssoq Burdojdwia satsysnpuT) (snsusd 934} JO neaing *s ‘q ‘suonedno0Q jo snsuad O[6] 24} wos payidwo7) panuiu0—SdNOdd ADV ANV AULSNGNI Ad OI6I NI SULVLIS GALINN AHL NI NAWOM JO LINAWAOTING IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 25 THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN The latest available statistics as to the extent to which children under 16 years of age were gainfully employed are contained in the Federal Census of 1910. According to these reports there were 1,990,225 children of both sexes between the ages of 10 and 15 years who were gain- fully employed at the time the information was gathered. They constituted almost 12 per cent. of all persons gain- fully employed in agricultural pursuits and slightly more than 2 per cent. of those in other gainful pursuits than agricultural. Of all the children gainfully employed, 895,946 were less than 14 years of age.. Of those between the ages of 10 and 13 years, 609,030 were boys and 286,946 girls. Almost 17,000 boys under 16 were working in coal and iron ore mines and quarries, of which number about 2,200 were between the ages of 10 and 13 years. The industries in which children under 16 were employed in the greatest numbers were clothing, shoe factories, bakeries, candy, hat, collar, shirt and cuff factories, slaughtering and meat-packing houses, blast furnaces and steel mills, saw and planing mills, printing and publishing establishments, cotton mills, telegraph and_ telephones, banking and brokerage offices, cigar and tobacco factories, silk, knitting, and woolen mills. By far the greatest num- ber of children were at work in mercantile establishments and textile mills. The following table shows in a sum- mary way the extent to which children were employed in 1910 by age, sex, and industry: 6F ebb S 9€ 04 620'T T 221 9Z L591 4 £21 (aes +0 EEE) be Lez 6Lb'e Or 042 6S 8S0'T I 0z $02 966 I 89 Sse Z8T 02 62 e8S‘C 692 80T es O80'T 90€°2 cs ese goe'e £19 6bz OF 809 £65 81 IIL 0gZ 6¢2 el Z TSB, £6 9 I $S6'F OL, al of 609 6r8‘S 969 LIP $2 eve T 42 8ZE 02S oT Ly ZI 20 oe sges'* 88 819 Obey 6£ OI aa PSEC 6 26S £ts's Prl‘6L $09 £0b‘p ¢ (Ayan) +e eee $72Z ¢ Z19 SUES * 8Sz +e 8S9°ET $ 808'T T TOZ‘T z ZZ9 LZ0°061 TT ¥°9LZ 962°9€ 622°C9 €1Z°6ST 869'89h 0s9‘0Sz T08‘9¢S OFT'OSe 60 bbs 946987 0£0'609 S[I1D) sAog S[ITD sAog sreak CT 0} $I sieak ¢] 0} OT ee OL6T *stonednoso [njures ur poseBue o8e jo sieak ST 93 OL