Conditions of Labor in American Industries

PRSSirrwwe Gor HB8072.L28 s of labor in American industri MI HN WA UIA TT Condition Conditions of labor in Americae HB . FBI 8072 L28 Lauck ete ee ee Oe RR ee Phil ny a 4 Tipe A =f A ok We ae ee LZ ; AD | RS uf fa. «ae CONDITIONS OF LABOR IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Conditions of Labor in American Industries A SUMMARIZATION OF THE RESULTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS BY W. JETT LAUCK AND EDGAR SYDENSTRICKER FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY ols, 5 $ NEW YORK AND LONDON 5B etl mM anv ae Copyricut, 1917, sy FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY [Printed in the United States of America] Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 Published, April, 1917 CONTENTS CHAPTER I—THE LABOR FORCE The Racial Composition of Industrial Workers . The Native White American The Foreign-born Wage-earners The Germans : Wage-earners from a strialtlauoery : The Poles and the Italians The “War Order” Industries Racial Distribution in Industries Extent of Trade-Union Membership . Size and Variety of Trade-Union Grediaicn ‘ Growth in Union Membership Proportion of Workers eal : ~-Women in Industry : te —The Employment of Children. : CHAPTER II.—WAGES AND EARNINGS Weekly Wages of Male Workers : Wages of Workers of Different Races . Wages in Various Industries Weekly Wages of Female Workers . Differences in Women’ s Wages Recoedade s ie dustry . Annual Earnings of Wage-workers HB = Recent Increases in Wage Rates . 8072 v 128 GP § 3 The Difference in Wapes at Men aad ice Niorkers vi CONTENTS CHAPTER III.LOSS IN WORKING TIME The Wage-earner’s Loss in Working Time . 74 General Statistics and Statements . 76 Statistics for Specific Industries . 81 Statistics for Specific Trades and Oecieannre 93 The Extent of Unemployment 100 CHAPTER IV.—CONDITIONS CAUSING IRREGULAR EMPLOYMENT Analysis of the Causes of Loss in Working Time, or Unemployment. . . aii kag Evolutionary Changes Acne Eiaplonment : 2119 Changes in Industrial Structure and Methods. . 120 Changes in Demand for Labor According to Industry . 122 Changes in Demand = fener iceontae to Locality : 123 Changes in Demand = Tater ee io the Tee troduction of Machinery and New Pro- cesses . : ; i, 326 Changes i in Orpancanen of Taner > 030 Changes in the Quantity and Character of the ~ Peabor ‘Sitteply scene Rube ey Variations in the Demand for Labor ae fe Riches tions and Irregularities in Industry Eee Fluctuations, Cyclical . BE Van tc) Fluctuations, Seasonal oy eg Irregular Employment 152 Conditions Determining the Worker’ s Ability ie Gaaee or Retain the Opportunity to be See which Industry Offers eipe oe tod Effects of Unemployment . . 169 Community Environment . CONTENTS “vii CHAPTER V.—WORKING CONDITIONS PAGE Hours of Labor . : 2ur76 The Trend Toward a Sherer Workie ‘Bat Ap 7 The Working Day in the Principal Industries. . 183 Industrial Accidents Tad techavite se . 192 Occupational Accident Hacer ¢ . 194 Causes of Industrial Accidents . 107 Nature of Injuries ‘ 3.203 - Economic Significance of Tedueeial ceidents': . 207 Hazards from Harmful Substances . P22 Insanitary Conditions in Places of Work 2252 Profit-sharing and Bonus Plans . 220) Employers’ Welfare Work a7. Labor and Scientific Management BRS: CHAPTER VI—THE WAGE-EARNER’S FAMILY Annual Incomes of Wage-working Families . 246 Distribution of Wage-working Families Accord- ing to Income . . A 249 Distribution of Wauseorking Pacilies of Tiger: ent Races According to Income . 249 Differences in Family Income According to eos graphic Divisions . 7 . 250 Differences in Family Income eordians Ae In- dustry . at gape ta, Cuba) eae Sources of Family Toco ; ~ 253 Expenditures of Wage-working Pautiies s e7r CHAPTER VII.—LIVING CONDITIONS The Diet of Wage-working Families . Beso) Housing Conditions rar . 291 Living Arrangements. ... . . 205 Ownership of Homes . . 302 . 305 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER VITII—THE WAGE-EARNER’S HEALTH PAGE The Prevalence of Sickness Among Wage-earners. . 315 The Greater Prevalence of Disease Among Indus- trial: Workers 23 Sc. jae SE eee Occupational Disease Hazards. See: Harmful Substances; Metals, Tee Gases. Vapors and Fumes .-. . 222 Harmful Conditions in Pees of Enuploymene = 323 Working Conditions which Cause Excessive Fatigue . 3 tga ay ees Morbidity everdiae es Cromatun: id an tye eae Mortality According to Occupation. . . . . 329 Irregularity of Employment and Health. . . . . 330 Uahealthfal Living Conditions... .. ... <2 9 =. 334 Inadequate (Diet 3.452" 2202 a ae ee ee ee Bad Housing Conditions. . anaas Effects of Unfavorable Comite Ravivoneen upon Flealtti: 01g. 2h) ie ee ee a eee as The Employment of Womens) 50/25 pale ai gee movertyrand Disease ji. St.) ac vie (ec ol We een CHAPTER IX.—THE ADEQUACY OF WAGES AND EARNINGS Adequacy of Earnings of Male Workers to pew Families . . SABLE uur Ac a57 The Adequacy of Wouter’ s Nyaees 1) SEs ee Ee icant? The Adequacy of Family\Income ....: “< »./., 4). 366 The Point of Adequate Subsistence. . .° . . 369 Studies of Minimum Standards of Family Genet 372 The Workingman’s Family and Higher Living Cost. . 377 1) (oe ee PGMA RE UGK mie fe) eles PREFACE THE present volume is designed to meet a practical need for a compact collection of the results of the large number of investigations and studies of conditions under which the American wage-earner and his family work and live. It is presented merely as a summarization of the principal and fundamental facts that have been ascer- tained during the past decade and a half; it is not in- tended to be a critical discussion of these facts, or to be an argument in favor of or against any partizan con- clusion, or any remedial program. Such conclusions as to the existence of a condition, or set of conditions, as appeared to be clearly warranted by the facts ascertained by official and other authoritative data, have been sug- gested, but the attempt has been made to avoid the state- ment of opinions or of conclusions which, altho the authors may feel convinced of their truth, are not gen- erally agreed upon as the actual results of the various inquiries. . The presentation of the data has been confined to the conditions of wage-earners in manufacturing and mining industries because comparable data for workers in trade (with some exceptions), transportation, and agriculture, have not been found available. The summarization of even these data has been found to be extremely difficult because methods of investigation have varied; because there has been a wide difference in the scope of the in- ix x PREFACE quiries; and because their results have often been stated in terms and in forms often impossible of comparison. So far as practicable the effort has been made to state the results of investigations in comparable terms, but com- putations have been studiously avoided in order to allow the results of various investigations to be given in their original form.~ In statements of earnings, for example, computations and estimates based upon daily and hourly rates have not been employed; only statements of actual earnings as shown in the reports of investigations have been used. It has been deemed best, in presenting a col- lection of data from many different sources, to shun the introduction of the element of statistical speculation as to general conclusions, which must necessarily be founded frequently upon meager or slightly related facts. The mass of detail which students of labor conditions have accumulated in recent years is so great as to render impossible the inclusion in a single volume of a consider- able amount of descriptive material. The authors have therefore been compelled to sacrifice much interesting and some illuminating data in order to keep within the limits of a practical handbook. The result is a statement, rather ~ than description, of some of the fundamental conditions of labor in modern industry in the United States, which, it is hoped, will prove useful to the student, be he in the classroom or in his vocation, employer or employee, busi- ness man, social worker or legislator. It is thoroughly realized by the authors that since the summer of 1915 there have been marked changes in wages, hours, and employment due to unusual industrial PREFACE xi activity. Attention has been called to these changes at various points in the presentation and, wherever there have been sufficient data, the general effects of these changes have been suggested. As yet, however, the re- sults of investigations of the changed conditions of labor are not available. Moreover, the permanency of the changed conditions during the past two years is, it is be- lieved, generally regarded as problematical in considerable degree. The summary presented in this volume is thus a summary of conditions as they have been found to exist in the period roughly indicated as beginning with 1900 and ending with 1914 or 1915. Much of the labor and facilities necessary for such a summarization were rendered possible by the fact that the authors were assigned to undertake a similar task for the Federal Commission on Industrial Relations, the re- sults of which, however, were not published. The authors desire to express acknowledgments to other members of the Commission’s staff for such data as they collected in unpublished reports made for the Commission’s use, and especially to Mr. J. H. Bradford, Miss Frances Valiant, Mr. Leifur Magnusson, and Dr. Ralph D. Fleming, who for a time were assigned to assist the authors. The volume contains considerable data later collected and added, however, and particular acknowledgments are due to Mr. Leifur Magnusson for the preparation of some of the material not included in the scope of the Commission’s assignment. The sections on Profit-Sharing, Welfare Work, and Scientific Management were also prepared by Mr. Magnusson. The Index was prepared by Mr. E. Kletsch of the Catalog Division, Library of Congress. CONDITIONS OF LABOR IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES I THE LABOR FORCE THE RACIAL COMPOSITION OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS SEVERAL years ago the former United States Immi- gration Commission conducted an exhaustive inquiry as to the racial composition of American industry, and the situation at present is practically the same as it was when this investigation was made. The extent to which differ- ent alien races were employed in American industries, as disclosed by the Immigration Commission, summarily stated, was as follows: Native-born Americans of native father, 25 per cent. Native-born Americans of foreign father, 17 per cent. Boteigh-borm vc)..." 2st reer Uae) slebiees | OOy PELECent. Fewer than one out of every four workers in our basic industries are, therefore, native Americans; while more than three out of every five industrial workers are of for- eign birth. The remainder, constituting about 17 per cent., are immigrant workmen of the second generation. Of the native American workers in mines, mills, etc., one- fifth are negroes, and four-fifths, whites. On the basis of general nativity, 42 per cent. of the industrial forces are of native birth while 58 per cent. were born abroad. The Native White American The native-born white American, or native-born whites of native fathers, are employed most extensively in the I 2 CONDITIONS OF LABOR manufacture of cigars and tobacco, collars and cuffs, glass, gloves and shoes. Only a small percentage, ranging from one-fifth to one-tenth of the wage-earners in the leading branches of American industries, are native white Americans. The native negroes have their largest num- bers of workers in cigar and tobacco manufacturing, bituminous coal mining, and in construction work in the Southern States; considerable proportions are also em- ployed in slaughtering and meat-packing establishments. The Foreign-born Wage-earners The proportion which foreign-born wage-earners con- stitute of the total operating forces of some of our lead- ing industries may be briefly stated, as follows: Per cent. of InDuSTRY all employees Agricultural implements and vehicles .. .. .. .. 60 Bootssandeshoes © tes!) scat kc arta sie’ coe eee erie ee Gigars andtobaccton sc) Gein" Gp aa knee een eno Clothing .. PC Re Ae Breanne kt re ILE Bituminous coal Gina was isis 2: sid) chaligh (oa ee OD Copper mining and smelting .. Sho See re Lae eS) Cotton: goods manufacturing... 2.5... +... 1. Furniture manufacturing Se!) wiht guh. 2 ee ne Glass manufacturing : ie ee” Pee enieece Iron and steel manufacturing wa Tony ile ita oS Tron kOre smn ss. A. aise seeks wits Daten eee eee eS Leather ye me ares Meme sru cia Reece scan d5y/ OU EMMI a) Ss, 925 ey shes UR Ie ieee ee OTE Silk dyeing .. .. Perens ss oe eo Silk goods danutdctaring ale Mh Sacto Re eet ene Slauzhteringyand meat, packing) i.) ae mlsenee ce elt Sugar refining .. .. Fistlel Pee ee TOO Woolen and worsted eeods manufacturing sia eabeuate ehOS Electric supplies smanitiacturing 6.50 eeu ccna Firearms manufacturing wig Le thy. (SAT Reeatete Nee ane ea ene ame Boundry and machine:shops-sct. 5) Ue. en cee eS Total (all leading industries) .. .. .. .. «. 58 IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES =3 The Germans The German industrial workers of the second genera- tion, as well as those of recent arrival in this country, are most extensively employed in agricultural implement and vehicle manufacturing, boot and shoe factories, clothing, glass, gloves, iron and steel, leather, oil refining, silk goods, silk dyeing, slaughtering and meat packing, elec- tric supplies, cutlery and tools, car building, firearms, foundry and machine shops, locomotive building, hosiery and knit goods, zinc smelting and refining. Wage-earners from Austria-H ungary The principal wage-earners from Austria-Hungary are Bohemians, Croatians, Magyars and Slovaks. Most of these industrial workers are of recent arrival, and com- paratively small proportions of those of the second gen- eration, or of native birth but of foreign father, are employed. Croatians are found in largest numbers in rail- road and other construction work, copper mining and smelting, iron and steel manufacturing, iron ore mining, slaughtering and meat packing, bituminous coal mining, leather manufacturing, and oil refining. Magyars, or Hungarians, are distributed throughout all industries, the greatest numbers being found in iron and steel manufac- turing, bituminous coal mining, silk dyeing, and sugar manufacturing. The Slovaks are most largely employed in bituminous coal mining, oil refining, and iron and steel manufacturing. The Bohemians have their largest pro- portions engaged in manufacturing clothing, agricultural implements and vehicles, in slaughtering and meat pack- 4 CONDITIONS OF LABOR ing, and in making electric supplies. They are also well represented in the manufacture of glass, gloves, iron and steel, furniture and leather. Altogether, wage-earners from Austria-Hungary make up, at least, 15 per cent. of the operating forces of our leading industries. The Poles and the Italians Italians, both from the north and south of Italy, are extensively employed and constitute about 7 per cent. of the total number of industrial workers. Their largest numbers are engaged in railroad and other construction work, iron ore and bituminous coal mining, and in the manufacture of clothing, foundry and machine shops, and hosiery and knit goods mills. The Poles are at work in practically all branches of industry, the greater propor- tion being employed in sugar refineries, cotton mills, fur- niture factories, bituminous coal mines, slaughtering and meat packing, leather manufacturing, car and locomotive building, zinc mining and smelting, in foundry and machine shops, and in the rope, twine and hemp industry. The “War Order” Industries Probably the racial make-up of the operating forces of ‘industries which have received European war orders has changed in some cases, especially in the manufacture of explosives, since the investigation of the Immigration Commission. So far as information is available, how- ever, it will be of value to note the conditions in those branches of industry most directly related to war. In the manufacture of firearms, the Immigration Commis- IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES i ees sion found that two-fifths of the employees were of for- eign birth, the principal races represented being French- Canadians, English, Irish, Germans, Italians, Poles, Scotch and Swedes. In foundries and machine shops, 55 per cent. of the workers were of foreign birth, the leading races being English, German, Irish, Italians, Swedes and Poles. In cutlery and tool establishments, 63 per cent. of the wage-earners were foreign-born, the largest pro- portions being composed of Swedes, Germans, Irish, Poles and English. In the coal mines, the Slovaks, Poles, and Italians, and Croatians predominate, as well as in-the labor forces of iron and steel plants and blast furnaces. Racial Distribution in Industries ‘Altogether, 56 distinct races were found by the Immi- gration Commission to be represented at work in the lead- ing branches of American industry. Almost one-half of the foreign-born workers were from Southern and East- ern Europe, the largest numbers of those of foreign birth being from Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, and the Bal- kans. The distribution of employees by races in 21 basic industries of the country is shown in the table on pp. 6 and 7, in terms of percentages. This table was compiled by the former United States Immigration Commission and is based on data secured from 507,256 wage-earners." Similar information was secured for 16 minor indus- tries including 112,339 employees. This is set forth in the table on p. 8, in terms of percentages by sex and industry.” 1 Report of U. S, Immigration Commission Abstract of Reports on Immigrants jn Mining and Manufacturing, Washington, 1911, Vol. I, pp. 332-333. 2 Idem, pp. 343-345. ab eie ain sles STE SING, CIA -e10J pue uerweyog Deets hes yeTUaULEYy 12081 Aq ‘U1OG-USIEIOT "+++ *sormqUNOd J8qIO Steer et tee gare Mm vees +++ spuepezymg teense eee OpSMe Feeeeeee es -pueroos bee eee reeset prgsn at v+ee+s + sspueroyaN veenee sesh ents eae teeeeeees ss spugrosT seeceeessssKupUliory bree eeeeses sggueny gticieisie. $2 2 DUB SU a Seb oo 129+ >"epeueg ++ *+Aresunyy-e1ysny J047EF JO UG jo Aqyunoo Aq ‘ieyyzeF uUsIelOyJ JO ULOG-sAIzeNT = = ce satel ba) 7 Gr) 2 nt a = r) = “—> 8 . S => i} ~ "= 3 er 8 New Ge LY 2 +t sO “—~ 8 . “=> 8 . “_~ 8 7 = 8 ~ — = 6 SCOnNMASHA Ss -_ Rare) 0 AK eS a oe - Ce) AANAN BAYAN | “=> 3 he Me Ao . 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INDUSTRY; PERCENTAGES [Only races represented by 500 or more employees are shown in detail] RACE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN 16 INDUSTRIES FOR WHOM CERTAIN INFORMATION WAS SECURED, BY (Stupy oF EMPLOYEES) Male Bulinyjoejnueu ©o MANMANMO ) oo F st MOMN pue sulyjews ourz S SsuULIMyoRjnueUT aN AMAGMA MH eH N mHO a oe JopIMmedAy, gS 00 uorjez10dsuely Oe a MESS tere oA ACMI ULE94S aro ~ ‘s SuLInjoeMueUt SUIS BUIMAG Surmnyoejnueur durey pue ‘aurmy ‘adoy SuLInyoejnueu sjonpoid iedeg Surmnyoejnueut djnd poom pure sodeg ast mOCOoNAr n~° P<) CS eras S* Sa suriredar on TPHAOCAPAGA MM pue surpiing eatjouL09077 * SAD Burmyorjnueur THononormad spoo3 uy pue Aroisoyy oOo SutmyemMueur sjonpoid doys surgoeut pue Aipuno.y SULIMJOVMULU Wes Hs WE)» SS oer oWleinne SulInyorjnueur soyddns o13j00[q uoryze}Iodsuely . a AvATEL o11,09[AT Ss aI rN Surmyoemnuent OS SOR eae ce anes JOO} pues AteqynDg Burnredal pue Ssurpying 1eq SuLInjoemnueur yedied So) las? oa oe Rae Uae oravian. Bohemian and M Canadian, French... cece r eee ary Oe ssiara einennrete inns Native-born of foreign father, Austria-Hung: White.... Ne Other countries... . : Foreign-born, by race: GENERAL NATIVITY AND RACE by country of birth of father: Native-born of native father: ~~ MMADOSAOBMOAANNOH | O tad YY a ote i=) S HO heal Se) S ©) 090 mMOSSCOMMMOMMANONY o Can = wig a oy Set a S wren ASO IN 21D et rat S09 Fs E> 00 1.00 S aw ots ans oO a s AMOA TamManonmnnan ‘ei Swi Honan © COotnomooogd atoom “ etl) tal tal “ MORDOMDMONTOMOWNOMMN a ananand <i ise) 100.0 |100.0 |100.0 a wet “HA dene ee ele eal Sra AtHtOAINAS Sao igdaddods Cy SCS IY SE wet UD Bh C27: STDS aa an ntad as os 0 100.0 |100.0 BION EY MD CVE CNN NSW OO EN 4 OD :GN “0 OG ag eos .0 |100.0 DOMMAOCAAHMIIAN AIMS Ade “ ~ “ ag wan Anan] and AAGDAWM OOM Dr rim Ot BATARM ft eat eal OX eked Ee alanis CDOS ANNO 94 C8 mt CVD COO AN KHAO N Ss - ASPOANWAAN GANGAL ° MAK om ors “AAMAS on Ss DOM = “aN “daaniAaad eH HO S eu = HOMAAUIANAGHATSOW 7) omnw (=) ah) nan b> al Saal 8 ARS rt CIR Spe Bes : 3: ; SAGE POE ee ae Breet: Op MA ae eee aac el Ge Gea g rat tet tes hres Al cima ea Pe} Sess See eee: 3 pigé 4O PQ Sie) sal s se = Bese OSs. q 2 a4 Saga iia.q4 :8 & oof Megdy gag sc9 22S fea bigaaeuey aces Odaodsetoasnm ici aes a Less than 0.05 per cent. 10 CONDITIONS OF LABOR RACE DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES IN 16 INDUSTRIES FOR WHOM CERTAIN INFORMATION WAS SECURED, BY INDUSTRY; PERCENTAGES—Continued Female oo Sep 3 a £ ee Be 5 n o o o Oa 00 op Oy do oO 00 je) th) 2) a2) 48] ee) ofl sal onl fel ee 2 | 85) 83/85] 85 | s3| $2] $8 | 25 fore} pel Pe) B GENERAL Nativity| 3% ae Eg 38 La go] 3e] 83 Be °o ay eee a | 23] B8&| SS] Sa] so] #2] ws] 23 oe bea eS eet oo ea | Peewee o i] Gs) - B1ae| 68 | 88 | $8) a8] gh] ga] & 5 geile ia y Native-born, of native Oey Deere pa ent sc N Beton of foreign father, by country of birth of father: Austria-Hungary aed) Soe 1.4] 1.1 i! 8 4 Ay) 23 ; da .0 4.2 1.2 1.9 4 -9 4.8 .6 a) -6 4.8 1.8 3.6 ok eek -6 9 4 -6 3.3] 12.56) 11.5 <o aS) -6 4 ce -O | 15.1 | 10.8 | 14.0 ee ee! a1 8 9 -6 1.6 ‘NY 1.4 zu | 8 me | .0 0 Sel Hee serie) 1 Ea | ay 8 5 9 4 a) 0 fl 1 1.6 .0 .6 0 4 8 Other countries. . 9} 2.8] 3.4] 2.1 .8 .0 £2 4 1 Foreign-born, by race: Bohemian and Oravian..... 0 “ie 0 1 0 oe .0 57: .0 Canadian, French -8] 2.1 4 8 A 8 0 0 0 Canadian, Other. at Old 3 -6 75 9 2 .0 222 Croatian ..:.... .0 ak .0 .0 .0 .O .O .0 0 English........ 1 4.0 1.6 1.6 0 ae co 4 1.1 German........ .6 1.8 4.4 2.1 .6 8 3 Mt 22 Greek. 0 8 1.2 }-...0 0 0 er .0 .0 Teishinre erates te hf) CeO 1 Onn 223 0 ah 5 .0 y bse Italian, North... 8 «Ol a7 .6 1 0 .0 .0 73 Italian, South... Pes ot 1.8] 2.0 0 .0 9 oe x3: Lithuanian. .... yf 4] 2.9 -8 8 .0 1 4 0 ASV ATs ats ce 0 x2 .0 -5 we “3 1 0 -0 4 .0 ROlish i ie s)aisai wen RA .1 | 22.4 4.5 .6 .0 9 4 0 Russian ss 4.46). 8 3) 3.3 -6 ne 0 .0 .0 0 Scoteh cscs .0 1-3 +2 4 4S) 22 6 o2. 0 Slovak. i... o .0 .0 56a 23 .0 .0 Se .0 .0 Swedish........ .0 7 Cor ale Cen) 1 .0 .0 .0 .0 Other races..... of 3.1 :8 J) 2.3 of 5 Aik 5h)" iS Grand total. }100.0 |100.0 .0 |100.0 |100.0 -O |100.0 | 0} .0 Total native-born of foreign father. .... 25 Total native-born... .} 47 Total foreign-born... .| 52 a Less than 0.05 per cent. IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES EES EXTENT OF TRADE-UNION MEMBERSHIP The extent of trade-union membership in the United States can be only approximated because no single agency, either private or official, attempts to collect statistics of trade-union membership regularly. Recently, however, studies of the extent and the growth of labor organiza- tion in the United States by Wolman* and by Barnett ° have provided bases for a very much closer estimate of the actual number of organized wage-workers, and of the proportion they bear to the total number of wage-earners, than has been possible heretofore. Professor Barnett’s study includes the year 1914 and its results are sum- marized briefly below. Size and Variety of Trade-Union Organization A grand total of about 2,700,000 members of trade unions in the United States in 1913 and 1914 is indicated. This was the highest figure attained up to that time. In 1897 it was 444,500; in 1905, 1,945,000, and in I9gI0, 2,138,000. The following table, abridged from Professor Barnett’s detailed statistics,° shows the membership in 1914 of each union and group of unions, the classifica- 8 The statistics published annually by the American Federation of Labor cover only those unions which are affiliated with it, and the unions in the Federation are not the same over any given series of years. The New York Department of Labor (now under the New York Industrial Commission) has, since 1906, pub- lished annually statistics of American trade-union membership supplementary to the statistics published by the Federation which, since 1911, are probably i lose approximations. canes lean! The Extent of Labor Organization in the United States in 1910, Quarterly Journal of Economics, May, 1916. aN : , 5 George E. Barnett: Growth of Labor Organization in the United States, 1897-1914, Quarterly Journal of Economics, August, 1916. f 6 Statistics of membership were obtained by Professor Barnett directly from i CONDITIONS OF LABOR tion of unions into groups being very similar to the classi- fication used by the British Board of Trade. The large variety of labor organizations, as well as their distinctive- ness along industrial lines, is clearly indicated : Membership of American Trade Unions, 1914 Building: Bricklayers and(masons' J. sc el awer wel ee) oes aU Bridge-and ironwork <e \ ser cient «ss 4 eines aa eo ce Billing elapGLenSa. reste ouiecele) rere eae te ie en 9,800 Carpenters. United \.\a- ds sine! poe) seu pes. Meret seneue cue Cenientsworkieuc cr oe ieee oe ove acd lca 7,300 Ceramicttile layers: vs, ic ssi telat) evo) fs eu Mean von 3,000 Composition TOOfEES 5 ni) a etl. ca tele eit meteors 1,600 Compressed air work SER GaD ost ere 1,000 Electrical work (A. F. of L.) .. .. .. .. .- 30,800 Elevatoriconstructors! if. tee. 0) alee ovat ee ante 2,700 Heat and asbestos wonkess7 ac tise) ae itiec) cannes 1,000 HO UNCATTIER Seis Modirew hen paoue Ger tabice, een Sete OUD Matblesworken 7 s55) panes tiaton fais ak caren ene 4,100 PAETELS EL ales este n Ves Su ceate To) che ee ea ke eae Stn ee Plasterers: 5 oe eee: va, ae Re es ES O00 macnbers’ os kd Gl Re ka Giese eek et ie Sheetimetal: work5 cote ek | ee eae een nT BOO Slatesand tile roofers 0s, EN... Woh lout: 600 Wioodiand:metal’ lathersi. 0.70). caer cage ee eee 6,700 Total insgerouphy vos i \rruetouap tle eee oe OOO official publications of the unions or from union officials wherever possible. These were supplemented by statistics of affiliated unions taken from the reports of the American Federation of Labor, and by statistics of unaffiliated unions from the reports of the New York Department of Labor. For an explanation and discussion of the sources of the data and of the methods employed in this compilation, see Barnett, loc. cit., p. 785, IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES Metal, machinery, and shipbuilding: Blacksmiths FR Site sf en eae Eesti ot 9,600 Molerinakers.cak & hive ve ee ae hee ee eee Carriage Work .iynice lh isc askpree. Tema ene see ttes 3,500 Cae works: (hs eth i co ices fee ap S000 Chandeliers work.tses 0 sce Use met areh s 400 Guttme die makers... 6. sa4 ee) Sem. ie Lees Bee 300 Wraniond wOrkion Coe ntce ae laze site ecgse biogas 300 Engineers, Amalgamated .. -. ++ +s + + 2,700 Foundry employees... -. ++ ++ +e te te os 600 Iron, steel and tin work... .. «- +2 ++ ++ 6,500 Marceau cis ein. Ses Ma crs! Sy, Re ee ee: Metal polishers.. .. Mr waee Tee eer LE, Metal work, Becdierlicad Sap Se scu-iss, Lis yebeetommmars 1,700 Maer a he ast ow, ce) od ie ee a Doorn Hiakera.)- ce ss Gb so to, Sein Pocket knife grinders .. .. -- -+ ++ ++ + 300 Railway carmen.. .- -- ++ ss +e se te ee 28,700 Gam aptiths ), as) <r, <4) e's), fy, See ig Res 100 Stove mounters ene ire mime Tc 1,100 WEE WEAVERS Sop ox oh) 'es, aa)! eet te ie anaes 300 Total inv grotip.’ ss 6s ee ee 8s sels 225,900 Textile: CA areaverG if be) et oe) te dats Ire to Elastic goring weavers -. +» ++ t+ t+ te ote 100 Lace operatives. -- 6. es ee te ete ee 1,200 Loomfixers erect tial salis). |. ak Cae tages CMa Aimee MEO Machine textile Stok ROT ee PTS haapey. tae 400 Print cutters... 2 oe ee te ee oe ne 400 Spinners 2,200 Textile work .. ++ +s. +5 e148 oe 88 te 18,000 Wool sorters and graders .. -. +2 + te ss 1,400 Total in group .- -- ++ +s ee ee os 30,300 ¥3 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Mining and quarrying: Miners, Western Federation Mine workers. United Quarry work Slate work . Total in group Transportation : Commercial telegraphers Locomotive engineers Locomotive firemen Longshoremen .. Rhine Maintenance of way ehialorees Ae Marine engineers Masters, mates, and pilots Mechanical trackmen .. Pavers . . Paving cites ee Railroad freight bavtiters Railroad signalmen .. Railroad station agents .. Railroad station employees .. Railroad telegraphers Railroad trainmen .. Railway clerks .. Railway conductors.. Seamen : Steam shovelmen Set eles Street and electric railway See Switchmen .. Teamsters .. 3 Tunnel constructors.. dotalein’ group ceecs es cmee . ee IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 15 > Clothing: tlOtenatand cap makers) <4 3 eey eee te caer? 13,600 Courses WOT K 55 fel cay | ey way asl y mas LPeedes oe) (00700 Glovewworksc (54 cee. nel steph sep lider Loe wal aces 1,100 Hatters Eo Bee ee Sok rir tees oa a mer 9,000 Ladies’ garment rae Se sop alissh c teeg? Ave, s-sten sata “809,900 Straw, and. ladieswhatcers" (22. ael ose eee ose ee 400 Tailors ee ar? mas ets. © oe Meo rad Ranting coe Le, O00, otalvin-«eroupy cos) es Bee sey cots teem OZ 000: Paper, printing and bookbinding: OO mPMnUCES 2 the tS asl Cad oe sa S83) an sep aU Lithographers .. .. Re tema Ree cee 2,800 Lithographic press fae Be) sisters ao kts Mt 1,000 Lithographic workmen .. .. .. «2 «2 «2 oe 500 Dearmae pewterss tc c's | 55k ee ce, Me ee 500 PAE RSHARELS tung |p 8) aie Aci sin) “erm ae pe pronase 4,400 PROMOFENGEAVERS Mw a he ekg ase cote let AOD POSLCERALLISUS Un ameee esi se! Tare) cle. vei) uoentaie 400 Lye Sa i aren mms Cite Oh 0) Pulp and paper mill work .. .. «2 «6 os oe 3,500 Steel plate printers .. ~.. os ce 0s 0% se +e | E00) Steel plate transferrers.. .- «6 se 26 os oe 100 Stereotypers and electrotypers .. .. «1 «+ «- 4,500 SyOOREADIICAL fc" ees es nel veel. ve na er oun e a OOO Dotetid group! iiss lise Ges as lan, 8 aah ea LU Oe Leather : Booteand slice WOrTk)) a. se) Vac: Gaauycisio, ay dul 86,100 Boctiand snoe cutters. (24 a0. se 24 OSe we oe 700 Leather work on horse goods .. .. «+ «+ os 1,800 Shoe work, United .. .. .. aula: » 14,000 Traveling goods and feather sorely eet) Bon eee 900 Total 0) GTOUP /.as | onchee ie. bat) wey tes SOO OU CONDITIONS OF LABOR Lumber and woodworking: Box makers and sawyers @ooperstce Pate cee Piano and organ work .. Timber work Upholsterers Wood=carvers: oss eos, ceo btw omer Geile els Total in group Chemical, clay, glass and stone: Brick, tile work Flint glass work Glass bottle blowers.. Glass work, Amalgamated Geanitevcutterssie cies. sae) ce) eel) sere Potters, operative POW Ger WOLk\ aca de) vais) ele meen yore SLONE-CULLETSia swine betel) atin oe eelonmee Window glass snappers .. Window glass work.. Total in group Public service: Government employees .. Letter carriers .. ets Post office clerks, Assoc. Post office clerks, Fed. .. Railway mail association Railway postal clerks State, city employees Total in eroup ss) os Le Rhee IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 17 Food, liquor and tobacco: RIAROPV OE WORE iG tock Fees Aan Sela Rt DR WN eke DSO SEMEL S WOl re hee cal Ne a! tk ee ees, Sa NNONOOU MaaeMakersy | 504 se. ees Sh MERA. Capi een oP aeynOe SEQ RIC ITIAKEES to. hee) ich eich aiatebelem era tea Late 1,400 SRODAGCONWOLKS Ta ts ceulaic hse eeu cee em eee 3,700 otal ingroup. s. oo. wed) sas aa) Lee POO Restaurant and trade: Gece WOEK ote) cn tte esa tc is sce mre hc aeetare 2,000 Piotelemployees® |. sr ae esc tee soe! Se de BL OO0O0 BINED Ware tLe. 6) nde Tay eed ie ee 2,000) REAERCIIRGGL Se leetel tier) | ree fists crite tate pee fate 6,200 eeateclerks fv Uae 2 kc ee la po err EO Pstabin group s.) Se RT ele eo Miscellaneous: Lt A i OEE NEE Pe me. ce he 11) PP DOSMETS son) b0. fee usa ti 88) oes ee: Peso (sin ans 1,400 BsoOmeimakerSidec as el as ao Hea Walk eee 700 Brush makers .. . Soh Veet as 200 Trade and Fed. Wevene re F. of L. ) id tent eRe 2700 RERUUO ICA re tenta nals bi scstcinu Sy Casuoie ee eels 800 EG TSESTOCES Wit atine ae Lahde oni.inodine s pasleee on 5,700 Te WaeW's (Chicago) _ PPL tE oa ok ome ee Va PAU NV ESET ICETOIR) in ie! Gb irae eee ae 2,000 Edundry, work. oa ss Si ae toe pall. ee ae ice te 2,800 Stationary firemen .. .. +. ++ ++ ++ se ose 16,000 Steam engineers .. -- ++ ++ c+ s+ e+ +e 20,300 Total in group “set ces we ciee ne) sey ise 123,400 18 CONDITIONS OF LABOR Theaters and music: Musical and theatrical union .. .. .. «2 «« 6,000 Miisiciansiss can nc iakste niece) ames ws. ve. 00,000 Theatrical stage employees .. .. .. «» «+ +. 15,000 White Rats Actors’ Union .. «. “ss. s. «. s« 28000 Total in Sfoup ° .s!_.s%. esas se” ae 1 eee Total in/all. groups. 2. 4. we ss as ee Growth in Union Membership The annual statistics from 1897 to 1914 have ex- hibited, in the main, a steady growth. There were, how- ever, several marked variations. It is interesting to note that these variations reflected very closely the changes in business conditions, a loss of membership resulting when- ever a depression occurred and an increase in member- ship whenever a period of prosperity took place. Thus from 1897 to 1904 there was a period of uninterrupted increase in membership from 444,500 to 2,072,600; from 1904 to 1909 the membership was practically stationary, concurrent with business depressions in 1904 and 1907; and from 1909 to 1913 another period of increase in membership and of absence of depressions. It is quite probable that the slight decrease in 1914 has been more than offset in the period of industrial activity which be- gan in the summer of 1915, if we may judge from the reports of the American Federation of Labor and from statements of a number of trade-union officials. The following table shows for each group the per cent. of the total trade-union membership contained in each group for each of the years 1897, 1900, Be and 1914, IN 'AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 19 the groups being arranged in the order of their im- portance in 1897:" PER CENT, OF TOTAL MEMBERSHIP IN EACH GROUP OF UNIONS IN THE YEARS 1897, 1900, 1910 AND 1914 1897 1900 1910 1914 PPAMSUOCEAEION 5c cc) set wc. cha tee eOM elo. Zao. 210 Building .. Sg soem Occieebl 7.7 oe) Oa 20.0 Metal, machinery ‘and shipbuilding ae ables} 9.3 9.2 8.4 Food, liquor and tobacco .. .. .. 99 76 5.4 5.1 Paper, printing and bookbinding .. .. 8.5 5.5 4.2 41 Chemical, clay, glass and stone .. .. 5.2 ' 3.4 2.8 2.2 Mining and. Qilarnyities wc see cso oe) AL. 15.1 12.9 14.2 Clothing... bg se ee Ba, 2.9 4.6 5.9 Leather ee ORT eer An |) ge iP eA aa 0.8 2.1 2.1 Bubliewservice (ict |.) erase! bid ee (2.5 1.8 2.7 3.0 PPextiley =..\/)<'. Aen US ice CO, a Le 0.9 1.0 1.1 Mheaters and mitsic .5 «. .) .«-<s) 15 11 2.8 3.4 Restaurants and trade .. .. .. .. 14 3.2 2.8 3.5 Lumber and woodworking .. .. .. 12 3.0 1:3 0.9 Miscellaneous’ «7 fics ce (9s: a aS 5.8 4.4 4.6 It will be noted that the transportation, building and mining groups have contained about half of the total trade-union membership, and over half of the total in- crease in membership has been in these unions. The groups showing an actual decrease in their relative im- portance are paper, printing and bookbinding and the chemical, clay, glass, and stone groups; these, however, were already fairly well organized in 1897. The total increase in trade-union membership appeared to be at a much more rapid rate than the increase in population, or in the number of gainfully occupied persons. Proportion of Workers Organized The census statistics of occupations do not permit of an accurate separation of “wage-earners” from the total 1 Barnett, loc, cit., p. 293, 20 CONDITIONS OF LABOR of those who are enumerated as “gainfully employed,” but by deducting employers or self-employed and fee- receiving workers (professional), an approximation of the total number of wage-earners is possible. In 1900 there were 21,837,050 such wage-earners and in 1910, 30,267,000. Using these figures and the statistics of * trade-union membership for the same years as bases for computation, Professor Barnett has estimated that the trade-union membership was 4 per cent. of the total number of wage-earners in 1900 and 7 per cent. in 1910. In view of the lessened rate of immigration and the increase in union membership in 1915 and 1916, it is very probable that the ratio was considerably higher at the end of 1916 than in IgIo. WOMEN IN INDUSTRY The proportion of women Io years of age and over in gainful occupations in the United States increased from 18.3 per cent. in 1900 to 21.2 per cent. in 1910. The largest proportionate increase was in the number engaged in personal and domestic service (explained as due to a change in classification as between the different cen- suses), followed by an increase of from 10.6 per cent. in trade and transportation to 15.8 between 1900 and 1910. Here opportunities for women have probably increased. In agriculture a substantial increase has occurred—o.4 per cent. to 14.4 per cent. In manufacturing and mechanical pursuits only has a decrease occurred—from 18.5 per cent. to 16.4 per cent. There is not an industry group embraced in the Federal Census report in which IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 28 women are not employed. The different branches of in- gt? ‘J dustry in which the largest proportion of women were reported in 1910 were as follows: Paint factories. Munition and fireworks establishments. Chemical works. Soap factories. Clothing manufacturing. Corset, glove and hat factories. Candy factories. Manufacture of food products. Wagon and carriage manufacturing. Leather and leather products manufacturing. Shoe factories. Clock and watch and jewelry factories. Box factories. Paper products manufacturing. Printing and publishing. Cotton, knitting, woolen, lace and embroidery, linen, silk, and carpet mills. Button factories. Rubber factories. Straw factories. Laundries. A large part of the office staffs of banks, insurance companies, brokerage offices and real estate firms were composed of girls and women. Slightly more than one} sixth of the total number of persons employed in whole- sale and retail trade were female persons. Almost one- half of the workers in professional service, and two- thirds of those in domestic service, were also women and girls. 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Be Seite oh SotapUNeT, (setspune] yd90xe) sdIAJas [euosiad pue doIjsoul0g 5 291d [DU0Sdad PUD IusamMog QdIAJVS [PUOISsazOIg ~ **g(Paylsse[d oloyMas[a JOU) dOTAIOS o1[qng 19942daS [DWOISSafOAg PUD IYQNn, - ee . we . oe . . . a **syuryd 9881038- Ploo pue sasnoyoie A "+ “s107zBao]@ UIeIt) apes} [}eje1 pur apesooq “* 93e4sa [voy sie as -a0ReIUSUy **a8elayolg pue sulyueg lapos I, auoydea3 pue ydess9[°.L . “+ 4S0g soenpanaso ssoidxq "+ speos[iel wieaig ‘sajuedusoo yoey pue qeo pue soysuesy ‘yoni, ‘sj2o13s JO ee ee oe os “+ **saiqeis AloAry * *SKBMIICI J99IIS PUL 911]00[q **saZpliq pue stames aoueUazuyeU Puke UOTJONIysUOD . . worye}10dsuesy IajeM 50140440 GSUDA TL, sie S9TIOJOV] MEIIS ** soartojoey Jaqqny ** ** saliauyel [IO See See SYIOM Ser) ** soriojoey Ajddns [eo1sj09/q **sjuejd Jomod pue 448l] 91130977 Salsojoey 000eq0} puE eZ . “+ sariojyoey wong ** sor110}0eJ YSniq pue wWoo1g ‘*S]]IUL pojsioM puUe UsTooMA SdNOudrt) AXLSNANT (snsuad 24} Jo neaing ‘sg ‘f_ ‘suo1jyedno0Q jo snsuax QT6T 24} Woss patidmo|) panuijuod—SdNOud ADV ANV AULSNANI Ad O6T NI SALVLIS GALINA FHL NI NAWOM JO INAWAOTAIWA 7 IN AMERICAN INDUSTRIES 25 THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN The latest available statistics as to the extent to which children under 16 years of age were gainfully employed are contained in the Federal Census of 1910. According to these reports there were 1,990,225 children of both sexes between the ages of 10 and 15 years who were gain- fully employed at the time the information was gathered. They constituted almost 12 per cent. of all persons gain- fully employed in agricultural pursuits and slightly more than 2 per cent. of those in other gainful pursuits than agricultural. | Of all the children gainfully employed, 895,946 were less than 14 years of age. Of those between the ages of 10 and 13 years, 609,030 were boys and 286,946 girls. Almost 17,000 boys under 16 were working in coal and iron ore mines and quarries, of which number about 2,200 were between the ages of 10 and 13 years. The industries in which children under 16 were employed in the greatest numbers were clothing, shoe factories, bakeries, candy, hat, collar, shirt and cuff factories, slaughtering and meat-packing houses, blast furnaces and steel mills, saw and planing mills, printing and publishing establishments, cotton mills, telegraph and telephones, banking and brokerage offices, cigar and tobacco factories, silk, knitting, and woolen mills. By far the greatest num- ber of children were at work in mercantile establishments and textile mills. The following table shows in a sum- mary way the extent to which children were employed in 1910 by age, sex, and industry: 92 6 - oe so. “me So110}0eT 3[ppes pue ssouleyy 02 620'I i zz1 tZ Tst't eT 221 NR cs a i die si ae HoBeM 9/ 189 : eZI 08 08/‘T Si Se 5 mee a Aerie ies eZ LA ecard ve (a4 8eZ 9°0 094 rales et hd sdoys prosper p S iy Lez 6LYE or 022 187 6bL‘C O41 9868 Cer eee eae 6S 8S0'T if 0z 09 8Z0°T Lie - SSE se ee lps ad mag pe S0¢ 966 £1 89 ee 490'T ST 982'T ‘+ os* + sasnoy-Suryoed pue iajysne[S SS¢ e81 02 62 SLE 1lé 8° 98S Sf hel et _sUyaRED Zit 4 Dee ae a ame zs beeen Ae Ge EN hie: og ae ee ese cEL'T Bsc" i f aoe eet ak 5 uy goes £19 6+ ob ZSS‘€ £2Z SO 5 A a ohhh 0 oe) rece I 809 £65 8I fat 929 +09 Oe et ee ee ae 0eZ 622 a Z fbZ 9€Z fy 6L6 Sin) a ee a ee eee Ts. £6 9 T £58, +6 Gig T