The Iron Age 1917-06-28: Vol 99 Iss 26

ESTABLISHED 1855 Wages for Ability, Output and Service THE IRON AGE 2 a New ‘York, June 28, 1917 Vol 99 No. 6 Human Factor Problem as Met at Bullard Plant, Bridgeport — Maxi-Pay Plan, Production Bonus, Dp. W. & Speaking of the greatest problem of business management, Gen. George W. Goethals said: “How many business men do you think ever made an in- ventory of their employees? Depreciation is of in- finitely more importance in a study of payrolls than in a survey of machinery. And the mere experi- ence of years may bring depreciation rather than appreciation. I frequently think that ‘efficiency’ is a much over-strained word—sounds like nuts and screws—obnoxious when hammered out to employees without the lubricant of recognition of individual effort.” A happy phrase, that! “The lubricant of rec- ognition of individual effort!” It was the work- ing out of an endeavor to supply the lubricant that enabled the Bullard Machine Tool Co., Bridgeport, Conn., to increase its working force from 250 hands to over 1400 hands in a little more than a year in the face of the stiffest competition for labor that this country has ever known in the metal-working industries. And it was by refining the lubricant that a little later an efficiency was gained by which the production records of the group of 1400 men were excelled by a working staff of a little over 1100. Hourly rates alone are not the determining fac- tor of labor costs. Labor cost is the lowest when help is steady. Three things inevitably follow low labor turnover: increased output, decreased spoil- age of work and decreased spoilage of tools. In these terse sentences are expressed the fundamental beliefs upon which the Bullard management builded; they form the keystone of the success of the organ- ization. Most managers will concede that the best work and the most work is produced by the highest- ol 3 ee Bonus for Steady Employment and Group Insurance FREELAND . = ee re = pS 6 7, SW 2 oH a th 2 thd Me4ers 67S 9CS 41618 MIM SSS ” . DURATION OF CUT IN MINUTES ae NOTE — “DESIRED - fFEED- - — « oF rev" “Si “UNTIL DIREC TLY-“UNDER re Rep Seb - E = anvet Js * CORR ee hs C Thor <CUT-OM* SLIDE’ READ: TIME: aa 1537 priced man and that the short-time man causes a direct loss. The problem then comes down to the best method of bidding for intelligence, skill and continued service. The Bullard Company employs four methods to secure and retain the most profitable type of work- men. It has in operation a “Maxi-Pay” wage plan, a production bonus, a service bonus and an attrac- tive form of insurance. From time to time happily worded pieces of literature are distributed to the workmen to call attention to some phase of co- operation. The ““Maxi-Pay” plan offers full opportunity for advancement along definite lines to those showing ability, provides a wage-rate limited only by ability and occupation, and advances wages in recognition of ability. The workmen are divided into these classes: Class AA includes sub-foremen and lead- ers in charge of working gangs of mechanics and, so far as possible, all foremen and shop executives are selected from this class. The minimum rate per hour is 55 cents but the maximum rate is de- pendent on ability. Class A includes skilled me- chanics of demonstrated ability with a minimum rate of 50 cents per hour and the possibility of a higher maximum rate. Class B includes mechanics of good average ability and the rate is 45 cents per hour. Mechanics of limited experience are placed in Class C. The rate per hour for this class is 40 cents. Apprentices, both special and regular, are included in class D. Men from this class, upon completing their courses, are advanced to the class determined by computing their average efficiency records over the last three months of their appren- ticeship. In class E is found labor of all kinds, [MACHINE SPEEDS & FEEDS — | SET ey FE 3 0% Te < - : Li ont | - 7 ey ¥ Pe! Min. : = = = 3. ae + © 7:8 SO Z 4 @ BD 25 OB 4 SO Ri PEAT an = a Pe ot a , : 24 ie) Gt = ——_ ——— ‘e % i ‘a 2 mhdrh ans e 7 8 98 EMT CST Sh 1538 skilled or unskilled, which is not directly productive. The minimum rate per hour is 30 cents, but the maximum is dependent upon ability and occupation. In the employment of men of this class, preference is given to those who speak and write English and who show qualities which will later warrant ad- vancement. This “maxi-pay” plan has been in suc- cessful operation since May 15, 1916. On Nov. 1, 1916, a production bonus was incor- porated into the plans. Standard times are set for each operation in a manner to be described later in this article. These standard times remain un- changed for one year from date, provided no change is made in designs of piece, material, number of Piece Mo - Conrmacr Ss OPcmation “cH. No THE IRON MANS DEPT MAME MAME JOB _OF PIECE NO. ON STD. | PIECES _ TIME OPERATIONS ws a HAVE MADE EFF. ON JOB p d e ‘ t, lifferer | | Time Limit Hours Pieces. Piece No Name Ow. Operation Job No, Figs. 1, 2 and 2A show a so-called contract card operator as a guarantee of contract price and fica operator, it is sent to the cost department and then to the rectly to the cost department The time on the back of the white form by the cost department, and the two are checke turned to the planning department, thes inserted in the contain a large amount of data upon any specific operat When the standard time is determined, a card, Fig proper time clerk who retains it in a permanent file The form, Figs. 5 and 6, is made out after each jol tive day worl They are kept in a special envelope, Fig If any operator considers that the standard tin 8 with such general statements of conditions and remed pieces, method or equipment. Care is taken to see that such changes, if made, are equitable both to the operator and to the company. Usually the standard time as first figured by the planning de- partment is considered only as trial time on new work, or on old work done in new ways or with different equipment. Trial times are considered as standard times in bonus calculations and payments until sufficient experience is gained to demonstrate their correctness or to make adequate changes. When once established as standard time, there is rarely occasion to make a change for at least a year. The basis of efficiency varies according to the class rating of the operator. In the lowest class AGE June 28, 917 of productive employees the basis is set at 7 po, cent and one per cent of wages is paid for r per cent of efficiency above 75 per cent. R¢ Is are kept of the standard time on each job a operator’s actual time and the man’s efficier determined by monthly computations. The r: of bonuses earned are used as a basis for ad\ ment from one class to another in the “maxi rating. A premium is also paid for prompt, regular ond continued service. An employee gets a. bi us amounting to 10 per cent of the weekly wages he earns during the regular hours of operation. A service pren ra bonus is paid on overtime. An's MAME DO NOT FOLD TIME CARD NOON No. Name Hours The B. M. T. Co. is made out in duplicate A yellow form goes to the f standard t'me on the job. After being turned in by tlt lanning department The white duplicate form goes 4 vellow form is filled in by the time clerk and that of the to insure accuracy The yellow contract forms are r¢ nvelope, Fig In the course of time these envelopes is filled out by the planning department and sent to th t colors being used for bonus work and non-produc- he is given an opportunity to fill out the form Fig make he can voucher (Fig. 10) is inclosed in the pay envelope on each pay day. It will be seen that this voucher is in three portions, the middle one being & receipt form which must be signed by the person to whom it is made out. These premium vouchers become payable four weeks after date of issue, if the per- son receiving the voucher is still in the service of the company. They become void if the employee leaves the company, either voluntarily or by dis- charge for cause. They are not negotiable and can- not be transferred. The premium system for con- tinued service has been effective since Nov. 1, 1919, and has worked out well. On Nov. 14, 1916, the company took out group hine or an assembly, Fig machining tted by a customer. rhe premium voucher, erator who has performed The premium 10, is made up each Hourly Rate Foreman's NOTICE OF EMPLOYEE'S Leaving TIME CEASES AT The planning department maintains operations are kept in a permanent file Fig. 12, the form of card on which Fig. 13 is a card employed to notify cards gives a concise analysis of the capac Notification of class rating or later closed in the pay envelope. The continued service the office when ity and conduct of the notification AGE 1539 insurance for all workmen who had been six months or more in the employ of the company. To an employee of six months’ standing, an in- surance certificate for $500 is given. After completing a year of continuous employment, the value of the certificate is increased to $600. For each year of continuous employment there after $100 is added to the value of the certifi- cate until a maximum of $1,500 has been reached: To all employees who had been ten years or more with the company a maximum value certificate of $1,500 was given at the time the plan was put into operation. An em ployee not over 59 years old who becomes to- tally disabled by accident or disease while in the employment of the company has the amount of insurance which he has obtained distributed to him in equal amounts for such period of years as may be determined by the company ifter a conference with him and his beneficiary. it has been found that this particular form of group insurance has been especially attractive to the workmen. One of the most interesting things in this entire system is the manner in which stand ard times are set without the use of time studies or, in most cases, without direct ob- servation of the operation It has not been | Pp ie | ton, lp, S 16 , r | | | UNDER THE odes | BULLAED | -><" | MAXI-PAY , WAGEPLAN (14 aes Rated Class Cents | vhereb 2 tir ’ ' or¢ f ple workman leaves ofr discharge Ret ning them men in class rating are | t ipor rd, Fig 14, e1 1] reat . . Fig Small sepa ee ve pe, x Production bonus is paid in a separate outlook envelope, Fig. 16. The upper portion of the production bonus, Fig. 17, receipt form, the middle portion, a notification to workman, and small lower portion simply bears the total amount paid. te - a en ee os 1540 claimed for this method that it has the absolute accuracy of standards determined by time studies and no particular claim is made that the stand- ard times are the quickest times in which the operation can be performed. The standard times are determined largely from two sources—one, the use of slide rules, which give the machine time for the operations; the other, from long-maintained records from which can be computed the average time in which the operation has been performed by the most competent men in the varying conditions found in any series of machining operations. In a word, the standards are not derived from men who have been taught to be purely mechanical in their motions, but come from the best efforts of intelli- gent operators from whom the fear of a cut in rates due to high wages has been removed. Every effort is made to have a standard time absolutely fair time for the average skilled work- men. In the use of slide rules the planning de- partment has become peculiarly proficient. Where standard slide rules for various kinds of machining operations are not available, they have devised slide rules to fit their needs. One of the interesting things seen here is the “prayer-wheel,”’ which will give an answer to almost any question that can be asked regarding times and speed on boring mill work. For certain kinds of work, Mr. Dwyer, chief of the planning department, has evolved a slide rule of the usual type with scales for the time, length of cut, feet per minute and feed, which is highly suc- cessful. The factor which makes it successful is that on this slide are certain figures which repre- sent the results of much research work. For in- stance, on this slide one finds on one of the scales a mark which is the factor of internal grinding. Other factors which have worked out well furnish a quick reading on special subjects, such as spline milling, cylindrical grinding and cutting off stock with a power hack-saw. To many it will probably seem incredible that such factors can be determined with sufficient ac- curacy to furnish reliable standards. The only an- swer to this is that from this slide rule a job of internal grinding, taking nearly 15 min., has been determined in advance within a few seconds of the average time of a skilled operator on hundreds of pieces. It is the practice of the planning depart- ment to determine from the original drawings trial times, which in most cases soon become standard times, on every operation on a new design of ma- chine tool. This advance study of machining times has very valuable effects. Every original drawing from the drafting de- partment on new work is submitted to the planning department for study before any blue prints or photostat copies are made. The planning depart- ment may have something to suggest about new methods of machining, a change in the order of operations, or the use of special jigs or fixtures which will save in the handling of or add to the accuracy of the work. As the heads of the planning department are men of long years of experience directly in the shops, this collaboration on design work is a powerful factor toward the eradication of ill-designed pieces with the usual entail of costly machining operations. As soon as the drawing of the piece has been finally settled upon, the planning: department makes out a time-routing card (Fig. 11) which forms a permanent record of the sequence of operations on the piece. The time determined upon by the study of the drawing is entered upon a blue card (Fig. 4) which is called a despatch card and is filled by THE IRON AGE June 28. the time clerks in the various departments standard time record for a specific operation. time clerk makes out for each job a contract (Fig. 1) which is made in manifold, the origi) yellow paper going to the operator as a noti standard time for the operation of the jo! duplicate on white cardboard is sent direct the cost department. If the time clerk find has no despatch card for this operation, he re: +s the whole matter to the planning department w). -} sets a trial time. The yellow card which goe the operator is held until the job is done an then approved by the foreman and inspector and sent to the cost department where the bonus figured. It is then sent to the permanent file in the planning department. When it reaches the planning department it is placed in a contract en- velope (Fig. 3) which contains a yellow card for each time that this operation has been performed previously. Each employee, when entering the shop, is given a time-card envelope (Fig. 5). A time ticket for each job in process is made out daily by the time clerk. A blue card is made out for work on which a bonus will be computed and a red one for work on which there is no bonus. The job time tickets are kept in the time-card envelope and sent, at the end of the day, to the cost department. A form is provided by which the operator can make a claim of too low time on a standard. These claims are given thorough consideration and if the claim is justified, the contract is changed. Fig. 9 shows the form which is sometimes used in the plan- ning department when it is desired to obtain the cost of all the actual machine hours on a complete new design. This same form is used in computing estimates on work submitted by customers. The amount of thought which has been put into handling this entire system, particularly where it comes directly in contact with the workmen, is evident in the way in which the various bonuses are made plain and kept clear by the variations in forms employed and by the use of special envelopes. This is particularly noticeable in the little envelope (Fig. 16) in which production bonus notices are placed. One could not safely say that the success of this particular system of remuneration was due wholly to the system itself. Back of it lies a wise selec- tion of administrators and underlying it a spirit which finds expression in many ways in their con- tact with the employees. Differences do arise from time to time, but the employees have been made to understand that as individuals they always have access to higher officials and that any complaint of injustice or unfairness will receive immediate atten- tion and that the cause for complaint will be promptly removed if the facts justify it. That a sense of abiding loyalty has grown up as a result of the efforts of the past year to bridge the gap between employer and employee and to enlist the sincere interest of the employees in the concern’s welfare is shown by the ever-flattening curve of labor turnover on the graphic chart of labor condi- tions. On Tueday, June 19, the Carnegie Steel Company, Pittsburgh, had 50 blast furnaces in operation and nine idle. The idle stacks include Zanesville, one Bellaire, Neville Island, two Edgar Thomson, and one Isabella, some of which are banked, awaiting coke. Edith, one Clairton, and Steubenville stacks are idle for relining and repairs, and will be started as soon as ready, if coke can be secured. une 28, 1917 Business in War Times At the annual meeting of the New England Iron d Hardware Association, held in Boston June 19, Vilbur B. Ayer, Providence, R. I., vice-president, was ected president, and the other officers elected were: harles W. Henderson, Jr., vice-president; Charles H treck, treasurer; George J. Mulhall, clerk. The meeting was largely attended and the address of harles A. Adams of the John B. Varick Co., Manchester, H., was cordially received. Mr. Adams reviewed usiness conditions as affected by the great war and iid the slogan must be “Business Bigger Than Ever.” We must not lower the American standard of right ving,” said Mr. Adams. “Be thrifty, be busy, waste othing, but be sure to keep this in mind—we cannot onduct a successful war, raise vast resources with- ut general prosperity, and we cannot have prosperity hen everybody starts to hedge. What will it profit \merica if we save a few dollars and bring about a ommercial calamity? Every buyer and every seller, vholesale and retail, in every line of commercial en leavor, should wear down the influence of false econ- Eccentric Dre The Periphery of the Shell Is Marked by a Combir f Actuated by a Weight, While Loose Dies Inserted Throug AT the Base, the Cap Also Serving I omy. To make, advertise and consume, these attributes to success will prove our greatest weapon at home to combat the common enemy, whose wonderful power is largely due to the application of these principles among her subjects.” Japan’s Steel Imports in 1916 Japan’s imports of iron and steel in 1916 showed a marked increase over those of the two previous years The total for the principal items in 1916 was 668,762 tons, against 396,509 tons in 1915 and 551,694 tons in 1914. Imports of pig iron and ingots are given as 243,182 tons last year, as compared with 173,883 tons in 1915, and 178,639 tons in 1914. The value of im- ported locomotive and other engines, rolling stock and machinery is reported to have been £1,691,521 in 1916, as compared with £988,473 in 1915, and £2,748,492 in 1914, M. K. Frank, Frick Building, Pittsburgh, dealer in second-hand machinery and factory and railroad equip- ment, has purchased the Juniata & Southern Railroad, a line 15 miles long. THE IRON AGE 1541 Two British Shell Marking Machines To enable the marking of shells to be done by boy or girl workers, two special machines have been de veloped and built by Laurence, Scott & Co., Norwich, England. The machines are designed for marking the periphery and the | of shells with the identifying marks called for by the Government speci- fications. The special feature of the peripheral mark ing machine of eccentric die roller, while a magnetic to ure the marking which s appliance to the base of the shell and also acts as an ase various is the use an cap, rves sec aid in lifting, characterizes the base marking device In the earlier forms of peripheral marker concentric rollers were employed and the weight which supplies pressure to the roller was lifted by hand every time a shell was The of the roller does away with this, as the required permanent inserted substitution eccentric marking on the shell indicated in the illu apertures removable is cut on a portion of the roller as ustration, re produced from Engineer ‘ing left for the accommodation of : the date, the lot notation on the shell. l be characters ing for marking number, or any such variable ‘ermanent and Removable Chara entric Rol Magnetic ¢ the Hight ‘ from the Marking T The shell now inserted when the marking portion of the roller, which is also that having the maximum eccentricity, is uppermost and the handle carrying the weight is pointing downward. In this way the simple action of turning the handle to mark the shell brings the weight automatically into operation. With this device, it is stated, the shells can be marked as fast as they can be fed into the machine, an output of 240 in 1 hr. being easily secured with a girl operator. The 1S rollers have a long life even where they are of the removable type. One roller has marked as many as 40,000 high explosive shells, and while the wear is greater in the case of shrapnel it is not excessive. The base marking machine is made in two sizes, the marking appliance in each being secured to the base of the shell by a magnetic cap. Loose dies are inserted through apertures of % and % in. in diameter according to the size of the machine and are kept in position against rotation and falling out by feathers. With this exception the dies are loose and the mark- ing is done by a hammer. The cap serves, too, for lifting the shell in conjunction with an ordinary hand block. It is possible to handle and mark 60 shells in 1 hr. with boys or girls doing the work. Sixteen Cities for the New National Arm Cantonments Providing for 40,000 Men Each to be Built in Two Months at Cost Plus Profit—Use of Steel to be Avoided WASHINGTON, June 26.—Sixteen cantonments for the new National Army, each a little city with a ready-made population of 40,000, will be established by the War Department on or before Sept. 1, if the elaborate plans nearly completed by the Quartermaster General are car- ried through on schedule time. But 150 cities in the United States are larger, either in area or population, than these cantonments will be and, although the hous- ing of the 600,000 recruits will be a mushroom growth, the buildings will be of a substantial character, well suited for the comfort as well as the shelter of soldiers in training and equipped with every necessary modern convenience planned with especial reference to the soldiers’ health. The sites for the 16 cantonments are necessarily scattered throughout the country in order that the travel of the recruits may be kept at a minimum and also to facilitate construction. In view of the enormous quantities of material required to build these 16 cities any concentration would at once result in railroad con- gestion that would still further accentuate the existing transportation problem. So expeditiously has the pre- liminary work been carried on that all the sites have been chosen, contracts for 12 of the cantonments have been let and a constructing quartermaster assigned to supervise the building of each town. Sites and Contractors Following is a list of the sites, the contractors who will build the cantonments and the quartermasters un- der whose eyes the construction will proceed: Division and Location 1. Ayer, Mass. Contractors Fred. T. Constructing Quartermasters Ley & Co., Capt. Edward Can Springfield, Mass. field, J1 2. Yaphank, L. I.. Thompson-Starrett Maj. O’Kelly Will Co., New York iams Myers 3. Wrightstown, Irwin & Leighton, Maj. Harry C N. J. Philadelphia Williams 4. Annapolis Junc- Smith, Hauser & Maj. Ralph Fenne tion, Md. M. F. Mclisaac, Proctor New York 5. Petersburg, Va. Rhinehart & Dennis Capt. Frank P. Ed- Co., Charlottes- wards ville, Va. 6. Columbia, S. C. Hardaway Con- Maj. William Cou- struction Co., Co- per lumbus, Ga. 7. Atlanta, Ga. Arthur W. Tufts Maj. James Norman Co., Atlanta, Ga Pease 8. Chillicothe, A. Bentley Co., To- Capt Ward Dab- Ohio ledo, Ohio ney 9. Louisville, Ky Mason & Hanger, Maj. Frank E Richmond, Ky Lampher 10. Battle Creek, Mich. 11. Rockford, IIL. Porter Brothers, Detroit 3Zates-Rogers Co., Chicago Maj. Earl Bell Mor ten Maj Donald bard Sawyer Hub 12. Little Rock, James Stewart & Maj. John R. For Ark. Co., Chicago dyce 13. Des Moines, Ia. Charles Weitz’s Maj. Millard Angle Sons, Des Moines, Butler lowa 14. Ft. Riley, Kan. George A Fuller Capt. Frederick J Co., New York Horman 15. Ft. Sam Hous- Stone & Webster, Capt George E ton, Texas Boston Thorne 16. American Lake, Hurley, Mason & Capt. David L Wash. Co., Tacoma, Stone Wash. The building of 16 towns of 40,000 inhabitants each in two months is a novel proposition and novel methods have been resorted to to render it possible. The 12 con- tracts already let have been awarded without plans, specifications, accurate bills of materials or the taking of bids. Contractors have been selected on a basis of reputation. A set of questions was confidentially sent out to all the leading contractors of the country asking them to tell of the work they have done in the last three years and how large a number of men they would probably be able to employ if awarded a contract for a cantonment. In addition to this, confidential in- quiries were sent to leading engineers and architects asking them about each contractor, his integrity, re, tation for finishing work on time, equipment, etc. 1 answers to these questions were placed in the har of an individual believed by the War Department ficials to be one of the best judges of contractors a their work in the country. On this basis the co tractors have been selected. Contracts on Cost-Plus-Profit Basis In default of detailed plans and specifications and in the absence of competition on price, the War Depar' ment has found it necessary to let the contracts on a cost-plus-profit basis. This basis was decided upon by the Emergency Construction Committee, chosen by the Council of National Defense to assist the Quarterma ter’s Corps only after weeks of study to develop a sys tem which would assure the country of the highest grade of work from the contractors and at the sam: time prevent extravagances through the payment of ex cessive profits. The War Department pays the con tractors of the country the high tribute in an official statement that “they have acquiesced willingly in the proposition and profits have been kept down to the lowest level consistent with high grade work, while some firms have offered to build cantonments at cost, offers which the officials did not regard it as wise, either economi- cally or nationally, to accept.” The utmost speed and efficiency must be developed in this and future building jobs for the Government and the officials believe that the acceptance of offers of free service “might easily disrupt the high grade contracting firms best qualified to do the work effectively.” Contractors’ Fees The total estimated cost of the cantonments is $55,000,000 and it is calculated that the most expensive should be constructed for not to exceed $4,000,000. As fair compensation to the contractor a sliding scale of fees representing profits has been agreed upon, ranging from 10 per cent on small contracts of $100,000 or less to 6 per cent on all contracts of more than $3,500,000 with a final upset limit of $250,000, which will be the largest fee paid for any job undertaken by a single contractor. The fees in all cases cover both profit and overhead expenses. The average estimate of a con- tractor’s overhead expenses which the Emergency Con- struction Committee has received is 3% per cent, so that the net profit on a $3,000,000 contract will be one- half of the $210,000 fee, or $105,000. As the contracts increase in size, however, the overhead expense tends to decrease and the committee, therefore, has reduced the fee to 6 per cent on all contracts above $3,500,000 and established the upset limit referred to. The schedule of fees is as follows: On work under $100,000, 10 per cent of cost. On work over $100,000 and under $125,000, a fee of $10,000 On work over $125,000 and under $250,000, 8 per gent of cost. On work 320,000. over $250,000 and under $266,666.67, a fee of On work cent of cost On work over $500,000 and under $535,714.29, a $37,500. On work over $535,714.29 and under $3,000,000, 7 per cent of cost. On work over $3,000,000 and under $3,500,000, a fee of $210,000 On work over $3,500,000, 6 per cent of cost. The total fee to the contractor shall in no event exceed the sum of $250,000, any agreement to the contrary notwithstand- ing over $266,666.67 and under $500,000, 7% per fee of 1542 June 28, 1917 Reimbursement on Various Outlays On the basis of this schedule of fees the Govern- ent agrees to reimburse the contractor on the follow- g items for which he makes an outlay: 1. All labor, materials and machinery necessary for he work. No departure from the standard rate of ages in the locality may be made without the consent f the Government’s representatives. 2. All sub-contracts. 3. Rental for construction equipment hired or owned y the contractor, at rates fixed in detail on the contract. he rates may be judged from the daily rental of $5 ermitted for the use of an automobile. 4. Transporting, setting up and dismantling such juipment. 5. Transportation of field ork. 6. Salaries of resident engineers, superintendents, timekeepers, foremen and other men in the contractor’s field office. 7. Buildings, field office supplies, equipment, com- \issary department and hospital expenses required dur- g construction. 8. Insurance and bonding expenses, uninsured losses and expenses incidental to the work and approved by the Government’s representatives. 9. Fees, deposits, royalties and similar necessary expenses. 10. Transportation, traveling and hotel expenses of yntractor’s employees actually incurred in the work. forces the engagec in Provision is made for monthly payments for actual expenses approved by the Government’s representatives who will have access at all times to the accounts kept y the contractor. This puts the minimum strain on the ntractor’s financial resources, while giving the Gov- ernment a complete check on the accuracy and propriety f every item before payment is made. Material and Transportation Problems The most serious problem confronting the Govern- ment in this great undertaking is the purchase and transportation of the enormous amount of material necessary for the construction of these 16 cities. The Emergency Construction Committee, having general charge of this work, is composed of W. A. Starrett, Starrett & Van Vleck, chairman; C. M. Lundoff, Crowell, Lundoff, Little Co., Cleveland; M. C. Tuttle, Aberthaw Construction Co., Boston; Maj. William Kelley, office of Chief of Ordnance, United States Army; F. L. Olm- stead, landscape architect, and J. B. Talmadge, secre- tary. This committee has enlisted the co-operation of large number of engineers, city planners, water and sanitary experts, and has also requisitioned all the subcommittees on material of the Council of National Defense. The Railroad Committee, of which Daniel Willard, president of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, is hairman, has also been called upon to assist and ilready a number of important railroad systems have provided spurs and sidings at cantonment sites in order to handle material expeditiously and avoid unnecessary transfers. A Thousand Houses for Each City Each cantonment will consist roughly of about 1000 houses scattered over an area of from 1500 to 3000 res, which will include parade grounds, maneuver- ng spaces and rifle ranges. The typical company irracks will be a two-story structure built of wooden ime covered with matched boards. The roofs will covered with prepared roofing. The buildings will well ventilated with flues and lighted by electricity. he cantonments in the South will be heated by stoves, it no decision has yet been reached concerning the eating of those in the northern sections, although he Emergency Construction Committee now favors the se of steam. Each barracks will contain a large mess and kitchen. The distribution of the barracks and auxiliary build- ngs will be determined by an engineer or town plan- who will lay out each cantonment in conformity th the topography of the location, taking into con- sideration railroad trackage, wagon roads, drainage and the like. As no two sites are alike, the layout of i THE IRON AGE 1543 the cantonments will vary greatly; hence the Emer gency Construction Committee has prescribe a hard and fast type of plan. Some idea of the of this job may be gained from a glance at a rough estimate of material for a typical cantonment made by committee is the big item, some 26,000,000 ft. or 1325 carloads being required. Crushed stone for the roads will make 812 carloads, and concrete foundations will call for 350 carloads of stone, 172 carloads of of cement. Railroad materials for spurs and sidings, estimated at five miles for each cantonment, will include not attempted to size the Lumber sand and 70 carloads 30 carloads of ties and other timber, 20 carloads of rails, fish plates, spikes, etc., and 114 carloads of ballast. The lighting system of each cantonment will require 10 carloads of poles, wires, insulators, ete. It is estimated that 20 carloads of nails and hardware will be used in each cantonment, 20 carloads of plumbing fixtures and piping, and 192 carloads of tanks, heaters, stoves, ranges, refrigerators, etc. Economizing Steel Owing to the unprecedented demand for iron and steel for all purposes, the designers of the cantonments are seeking to avoid its use wherever possible. The water mains will be wooden pipes and no structural steel whatever will be employed with the exception of a small quantity necessarily used in the boiler and power plants, but even this requirement will be reduced to a minimum by the utilization of current taken from electric lighting plants in neighboring towns. It is estimated that 42,640 kegs of nails will be required for the 16 cantonments, or 2665 kegs each, distributed as follows: 550 kegs 20-penny, 456 kegs 10-penny and 1200 kegs 8-penny common wire nails; 10 kegs 10-penny, 90 kegs 8-penny and 40 kegs 6-penny finishing wire nails; 231 kegs 6-penny casing wire nails, 83 kegs 114-in. nails. nails and 5 kegs %-in. roofing . ‘ roofing Plumbing and Radiation calls 2 galvanized pipe, 20,000 nipples, 30,000 unions, 225,000 malleable fittings, 30,000 shower bath heads, 40,000 closets tanks, 12,000 urinal troughs, 9000 lavatory troughs, 23,000 floor drains, 5000 roof flashings, 95,000 ft. of cast-iron sewer pipe, 150,000 ft. of soil pipe fittings, 822,000 Ib. of calking lead, 91,000 lb. of oakum, 8000 terra cotta grease traps, 8000 cast-iron sinks, range boilers. been made as to the number of ranges and heating stoves that will be required and it will be impossible to secure figures concerning radiation and steam piping until the Emergency Construction Committee has determined upon the heating system to be employed in the canton ments located in northern districts. In view of the skepticism generally prevailing, even among those familiar with building operations, con cerning the ability of the Government to have the can tonments finished on schedule time, the War Depart ment calls attention to the fact that on May 14 the Quartermaster General’s Department received instruc- tions to have June 15 for 150,000 men, involving the erection of new buildings at nine posts at a cost of about $7,000,000. This work is now prac tically finished and in addition the Quartermaster’s Department has erected four camps for medical reserve officers, each accommodating 600 men, and 24 camps for members of the officers’ reserve corps, each having, in addition to the buildings for the men, quarters for four hospital units and four ambulance units. As the new army cantonments involve substantially the same class of construction, though on a much larger scale, the authorities are confident that the entire 16 towns will be ready by the time the recruits have been chosen through the selective conscription process. Ww. 1. ¢ The plumbing work for the 16 cantonments for about 1,600,000 ft. of % to 2%-in ana and 6000 galvanized No accurate estimates have yet quarters on Herman A. Holz, dealer in metal testing instru ments, has removed from 50 Church Street to 1 Madi son Avenue, New York. The Heat Treatment of Large Forgings Precautions to Be Observed When Forging Is of Irregular Section or Too Large to Obtain Adequate Working and Heating BY SIR WILLIAM BEARDMORE OR every class of forging it is ee desired that the material com- BOA posing it should give the me chanical tests required by a suitable K choice of composition. It is also necessary that the material should / gi be in such a physical condition that he? brittleness and the chance of sudden failure are reduced to an absolute J minimum. Carbon steel forgings See produced to meet a definite mechani- cal test specification must possess ( the least crystalline growth or the smallest grain size. The object of all heat treatment is to confer this condition on the forging. The time that the material is kept at its maxi- mum temperature and the time taken to cool down have an import- age eee eas ant influence on the grain size. A limit is ultimately reached in the Fig. 1.—Forged ; size of the forging beyond which a Used for plain carbon steel cannot be used with safety, and the use of an alloy steel becomes imperative. As heavy masses of steel cool slowly large grain crystals result at the center. To avoid these the cool- ing has been hastened by means of oil quenching and a subsequent heat treatment is necessary to remove the hardness resulting from the quenching. With small forgings a simple annealing will be satisfactory, but for large forgings some form of heat treatment is necessary to obtain the best results. In plain carbon steel the effect of oil quenching di- minishes with the distance from the outside surface. With large forgings, therefore, the quenching effect at the center is so small that it is insufficient to confer any benefit on the material. The effect is shown by the fol- lowing results obtained from a shaft 18 in. in diameter of the following composition in percentage: Carbon, 0.18; manganese, 0.65; silicon, 0.1! sulphur, 0.048 phosphorus, 0.037 The casting was heated to 820 deg. C., held at this temperature two hours and cooled in oil. Table 1 shows the results of test pieces on the outside skin and at the center: Table 1—Effect of Heat Treatment at Outside and Center of a Large Forging Elastic Ultimate Elongation Reduction Location of Limit, Stress, in2In., of Area, Test Piece Tons per Tons per Per Per Sq. In Sq. In. Cent Cent Cheteide . ccacicca. 17.5 33.1 27.0 53.1 Ce cn in tas 15.0 29.0 31.0 46.0 Photomicrographs of the outside skin showed exceed- ingly fine grain crystals, while those of the center showed an exceedingly coarse and widely separated grain crystal. There is an intimate relation between the grain con- dition of a forging and the amount of work undergone during the forging operation. For the best results the ratio of cross section of the ingot and the largest cross section of the forging should have a minimum value of not less than three. For an ingot 83 in. in diameter the maximum size of the forging should not exceed 48 in., and larger forgings than this should be built up rather than attempted in one piece. While not strictly a forging, the following example illustrates the foregoing statement regarding the heat treatment of heavy forgings: Steel discs 55 in. diameter, 11 in. *From a paper read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Great Britain, March 16, 1917 thick were required to revolve high speed. The ingots, contai: carbon 0.53 to 0.54 per cent, sil <A 0.18, manganese 0.50, sulphur 0. phosphorus 0.040 per cent, were gi a heat treatment after rolling, « sisting of: (1) Heating to 780 c: } C. for two hours and cooling in / (2) Heating to 550 deg. C. for f —_ ae hours and cooling in air. ee Test pieces from the center of t *- 1% slab gave results as shown in Ta 2, which also gives the required prop- erties. The reasons offered for the failure of the material to meet th | specifications were too low car! and too great thickness of the sla to allow the oil quenching to tak sufficient effect to attain the highe tonnage required. Another ingot was cast from higher carbon material, containing carbon 0.62 to 0.63 per cent, silicon 0.25, manganese 0.70, sulphur 0.023, phosphorus 0.024 per cent. Table 2—Results of Tests from the Center of the Slabs Yield Ultimate Reduc- Point, Stress, Elonga- tion Tons per Tons per tion, of Area, Sq. In. Sq.In. PerCent Per Cent Test results specified... 23.0 45.0 20.0 cee Test results obtained... 23.6 42.3 14.0 39.3 After rolling to 5% in. thick, a heat treatment was given consisting of (1) Heating to 900 deg. C., holding for one hour and cooling in oil. (2) Heating to 760 deg. C., holding for one hour and cooling in oil. (3) Heating to 640 deg. C., holding for eight hours and cooling in air. Test pieces taken from the various locations A to E in Fig. 1 gave the results shown in Table 3. Table } Ki esults of Tests of Pieces from Varous Locat in Fig. 1 Yield Ultimate Elonga- Reduc- Point, Stress, tionon tion of Tons Tons 2In., Area, Fig per per Per Per 1 Sq. In. Sq. In. Cent Cent Fracture A 28.1 46.2 28.0 52.4 Silky fibrous B 27.9 46.0 27.0 44.4 10 per cent fibrous 90 per cent fine gran Cc 27.2 46.6 25.0 7.2 40 per cent fibrous 60 per cent fine gran D 26.4 46.0 26.0 42.0 30 per cent fibrous 70 per cent fine gran E 26.8 46.2 27.0 44.4 50 per cent fibrous 50 per cent fine gran These results show the improvement effected by building up the discs from two 5%-in. slabs rather than attempting to manufacture an 11-in. disc in one piece. The beneficial effect of working is illustrated by Table 4 which shows the test results after the original 1l-in. slab had been re-rolled down to 5%-in. and heat treated according to the second method. . Table 4—Results After the Original Slab Had Been Rer Down to 5% In. Yield Ultimate Elongation Point, Stress, (Ratio Tons per Tons per Length 10), Remarks Sq. In. Sq.In. PerCent In. Thick Length 26.3 44.9 15.8 oly Cross 25.7 44.2 16.5 5 ly Cross 23.6 42.3 14.0 11 For material over 40 tons tensile strength per 54- in., where the factor of safety is limited owing to the special conditions under which the material must be employed, it will generally be safer to use an alloy steel. But for material whose tensile strength is below this 1544 a a June 28, 1917 gure there is not the same necessity, and excellent re- ilts can be obtained from oil-treated low-carbon steel. Fig. 2 is a sketch of a rotor spindle, made to the pecification of yield point, 20 tons per sq. in; ultimate stress, 36 tons per sq. in.; elongation in 2 in., 24 per ent. If an ingot were used which would give the re- uisite amount of work for the largest section the cost f forging the ends down to 11 in. would be out of all roportion. A compromise to bring the best metal- irgical and best commercial conditions was effected by ising a 60-in. ingot of the composition: Carbon, 0.38; manganese, 0.39: silicon, 0.21 sulphur, 29; phosphorus, 0.044 per cent. Since the end piece, 11 in. in diameter, could be heated in about 4 hours, while tiie center would require 0 hr., the end pieces would have been at their heat for 16 hr. before the temperature of the forging became niform. The crystalline grain in the ends would in his time grow to such size as to nullify any good effect the oil treatment. The ends were, therefore, covered th asbestos sheets leaving only the center exposed hen the forging was charged into the furnace. The heeting was removed at the end of 15% hr. so that the rging attained its heat uniformly as a whole. The THE IRON AGE 1545 absolutely necessary to take temperatures at every stage, not only of the furnaces but, in the case of heavy forgings, of the forgings themselves. If that were done, and provided the steel in the first place was of suitable quality, it could be almost guaranteed that there would be little or no trouble. On the other hand, in steel which was peculiarly sensitive to treatment, that is, irregular treatment, undue crystallization or strains would be set up in the forging produced. For instance, if the operator started with ingots, and not billets or rough forgings, then, especially with the harder steels, it was decidedly in advisable to put cold ingots into a hot furnace. In other words, the temperatures of the furnace and the ingot should rise together so as to insure a slow and consistent heat treatment Even with such special steels as manganese steel and nickel-chromium steel, provided care was taken to very gradually heat the object which it was desired to forge, success could readily be obtained. For instance, if the ingot was allowed to cool near the furnace, where the temperature was, perhaps, 200 or 300 deg., the chance of success was much greater than if the ingot was allowed to coo] n the open air , 2 He Further, great care should be <ercised in control grain crystals in consequence were uniform throughout ling the cooling conditions, so that having « heap of Test pieces from the locations shown in the illustration Liasien codline eis Mane cand act tench aaathen $y ive Cae tesuns presented in Table 5. doing this all the blanks cooled down uniformly and Results of Tests from Various Locations j evenly. In this connection one often heard of “normal Yield Ultimate ized” steel, which was really a very proper attempt to int _stress Elong produce steel which had been |} ited to a known and ‘Se =_ eee , aeendien ' easonable ten perature and ooled 1! a KnOoOWwT and 6. ( 296 88.8 °7 definite manner and time. They were beginning to pay £6.98 39.2 27 great deal of attention to th matter America In 7 } 22 4 33°83 one case a large steel works took the temperature of on.4 38.8 several hundred heats and found that | proper iper a a vision and control the temperature of the fluid steel The heat treatment consisted of (1) Heating to 800 did not vary more than 30 deg. | If it were possible eg. C. for 2 hr. and cooling in oil. (2) Heating to 550 to do this over such a large number of forgings with deg. C. for 11 hr. and 30 min. and keeping at that heat such high temperatures, it was high time that we 2 hr. learned how to do the same thing not only with ordi Large forgings which have been heat treated are nary steel but with the special steels. It had often been 9! h ’ | ee t | | “ , 3 Too Ay | | | fo a 7 by) —__ a Se it pa } y ae 1} + eB ail LI I : 1 ?—The Ends of This Rotor Spindle Were Covered with Asbestos While tl Large Central Portion W Being Heated Thus Bringing All Parts of the Piece to Annealing Temperature at a Ur rm Rate subject to distortion due to internal stresses probably set up by the operation of quenching. On machining a forging these stresses are partly relieved and the forg- ng takes up a new shape under the influence of the forces still remaining in the material. It is advisable on this account to rough machine the forging after reatment and to then re-anneal it before final treat- nent. Allowance for this re-annealing can be made the first testing, and, where the final machining is ntricate and accurate it will be found to well repay the + Discussion Sir Robert Hadfield in discussing the paper, said it his experience had not been in small numbers of rge forgings, but in large numbers of smaller forg- ings, but he was not aware of a single case of failure at the front of any British-made forging through faulty material. Speaking of his own company’s experience in mak- ng these forgings, they were exceedingly careful to have special attention paid to temperatures, whether of the reheating furnaces or of the subsequent operations, by means of optical and other pyrometers. The old- fashioned way of taking an ingot or forging and heat- ing it up to a “certain color,” indicating what the fore- man thought was correct, was passing away. It was stated that constant vibration would set up a particular kind of crystallization in a steel article. His own ex- perience, however, was that properly-treated steel did not break in this manner. Moreover, the old theory that large crystals were formed in improperly-treated steel was incorrect. fractures, was there because the Large crystallization, as seen in many original structure was coarse. Fig. 3.—The Shell Forgings Are Supported on Uprights on an Industrial Car with Sufficient Space Between Blanks to Admit of a Free Circulation of Air 1546 PREPARING FOR EXPANSION Building of Aircraft Expected to Grow with Great Rapidity Preparations to carry out the Government program for aircraft construction have already been begun. President Wilson has formally approved the plan calling for the appropriation of $600,000,000 by Congress with which to build a tremendous airplane fleet. The Air- craft Production Board, which is a sub-committee of the Council of National Defense, has paved the way for airplane production by assisting in the organization of an association of aircraft manufacturers, and h