The Iron Age 1915-11-04: Vol 96 Iss 19

ESTABLIS! 1855 An Enumeration BY R. A. Of all the forms of heat treating, no doubt case hardening is the most extensively employed. It is merely an application of the old cementation process of making steel from iron. Of course, im- provements have been made over the original methods, both in the process and in the materials involved. There are two prime requisites that case hardening fulfills more efficiently than any other process known to modern mechanical science, namely, a very hard non-wearing surface and tough malleable core that is capable of absorbing an enormous amount of vibration without serious difficulty. The application of the process of case harden- ing is too extensive for exhaustive enumeration in this limited space. Generally speaking, short shafts, pins, bolts, collars, thrust rings, screws, bearings, spindles, gears, ratchets, clutch dogs, or any machine parts that are made of steel and are subject to wear, can be advantageously case hard- ened at a very small cost. The writer has in mind acompany that makes a practice of case hardening all the steel parts of its tools and jigs used in the manufacture of automobiles. The maintenance on these tools is surprisingly low. Locating lugs and centering blocks do not wear away on the edges and become inaccurate. Practically the only re- placement that is done on the tools at all is of drill bushings and boring bar guides. The locking de- vices, set screws, and clamps showed no sign of wear after months of constant production. One small cotter pin hole has had 40,000 shackle bolts pass through it and it is still as accurate as mi- crometers can measure. The same jig was replaced three times in drilling 20,000 holes before the case- hardened jig was made. No change in design was the case-hardened feature was added. Made; on! Any steel surface, whether a bearing one or not, that is lable to be nicked or marred by rough te oan be made practically indestructible by mm hs emer, - The advantage of the process of high a CHING low-carbon steel in place of using - it z tool steel is obvious in many instances, ing 1 be clearly understood that case harden- » dnb 5 ure-all shin plaster to be used indis- ast . : es any and all purposes. Each firm aie ha, largely from experience what can be a Sarcened to advantage. dianar etallurgist Millholland Tool Company, In- New York, November 4, 1915 1041 VOL. 96: No. 19 Materials Employed in Case Hardening of the Various Sub- stances Used—Advantages of the Natural and Manufactured Materials Compared MILLHOLLAND" Let us first have clearly in mind what is meant by the term case hardening, and the cementation We must hark back to the days when the art of making steel was new,—how far back no one really knows, but the Damascus and Toledo are familiar to all readers of history. Were you to ask one of these readers what was the most striking thing that he remembered about these tw6 ancient cities, no doubt the answer would be “The swords of Damascus and blades of Toledo.” Without a doubt both of these famous steels were made by the cementation process with some im provements, the secrets of which died with the prestige of the cities. A fine grade of wrought iron was the base upon which the cementation process was founded. Flat bars of iron were placed in furnaces packed in lay ers of charcoal and subjected to a temperature in the range of 1400 to 1650 deg. Fahr. The carbon in the charcoal was dissolved by the iron and when carbon had penetrated the and thoroughly saturated it, the cementation was considered com plete and the removed and “stack welded” one upon the other to a homogeneity that has been the envy of succeeding generations of steel craftsmen. The ancients realized the value of “working” their steels and the results secured were remarkable. The writer does not want to be mis- understood, however, causing some to believe that ancients could produce better steel than our latest modern manufacturers do. The ancients had noth- ing to surpass or even equal the chrome-vanadium steel of to-day. The process of case hardening, then, is nothing but the proper regulation of the cementation or in- fusion process, as some see fit to call it. The old method of using charcoal as a means of injecting, or infusing, the carbon into the iron is slow and costly. Many newer and better materials have been discovered which are far superior to the old char- coal process. It was discovered some years ago that the pres- ence of nitrogen in the carbonizing material mate- rially increased the speed of penetration or infusion of carbon into the surface of the i It was process. names of steel bars were iron. found after investigation that nearly all of the numerous patented carbonizing compounds have only two really essential elements in them, and de- spite the claims of the virtues of their respective products, carbon and nitrogen still remain the two 1042 THE IRON AGE Noven { major elements involved in case hardening. It is of little or no consequence to the practical man, whether the carbon penetrates the steel in a gas- eous or solid state. Let the ultra-scientific theo- rize on that subject and meanwhile let us consider the natural carbonizers and their faults and vir- tues. Among the natural carbonizers, those most extensively used are granulated bone, charred hoofs and leather, beet sugar pulp and crude raw sugar. Granulated bone is no doubt the most widely used of all carbonizers and while it has some almost unforgivable evils, its availableness and price make it a universally used carbonizer. Its one and only great drawback is the high phos- phorus content which has a noticeable effect on the toughness of the case-hardened area, making it brittle and prone to chip or flake off in service. However, after bone has once been burnt over and still contains a high percentage of carbon, the dan- ger from the phosphorus decreases with the num- ber of times the bone is used. I should say that 36 hr. of actual carbonizing heat is all that bone will stand and give any kind of results at all. If the bone is properly fortified after each heat, it can be used repeatedly, and grows better in carbonizing quality after each fortification. Highly uniform results can be obtained by uniform methods in for- tifying the “spent” bone. By fortifying I mean restoring the carbonizing power of the bone. Bone is made up largely of lime which really forms the body or structure of thé bone and is in evidence when after repeated heatings small bits of chalky white substance are found in the mass of burnt- over bone indicating that the bone is almost spent or burnt out. The writer has developed a method of his own regarding this process of refortifying spent bone and will gladly furnish any fellow craftsman with more particular details than this limited space will perrnit. Charred hoofs and leather when mixed with hick- ory charcoal make a very good carbonizer, but the mixture is very uncertain and where uniform re- sults are required the fortified bone is best and costs much less. Beet sugar pulp is obtainable from any sugar refinery at a surprisingly low cost, and in the writer’s estimation has no rival for case hard- ening nuts and screws as the work comes from the carbonizing pots without any adhering dust parti- cles and fused bits of metal that we often find in the charred leather. Five hours is the longest heat that beet sugar pulp will stand before it is spent and nothing is left but a light flaky dust in the cans. The shrinkage of the pulp is at least 30 per cent. Beet sugar pulp is high in volatile carbon- izing gases and for that reason the carbonizing re- torts must be thoroughly gas tight to secure the depth of case in the parts undergoing case harden- ing. Now let us consider the artificial, or rather the manufactured, case-hardening compounds. Some are patented, but many are not, and I shall describe several different brands. Each manufac- turer of carbonizing compoéund quite naturally claims his to be the best, and I have pamphlets and booklets on my desk that show clearly and quite convincingly, I confess, that the particular brand of carbonizer exploited in the pamphlet is the best obtainable. I might truthfully say that I have not run across any real bold frauds in this particular line, at least not within the last six years, and any of the better known products are safe and reliable carbonizers to use, that is, disregarding the eto- nomical side of the question. I have found all of the present carbonizing compounds put out by the manufacturers to be very expensive, and they all lose their body and disintegrate into ; do not respond to fortifying as well a bone does. For very fine work I str mend the use of a manufactured c: is cause the results obtained are undoubi the perior of bone carbonizer, but for o) poses bone is quite satisfactory. The reason for this discrimination dinary work and Zelicate case harden on scientific principles. The writer through his own experience that a car in the case of 0.85 per cent gives th results for a hard, stiff case that will ; away easily nor chip off under a slight course it is quite impossible to secure a dis. tinctly theoretical carbon content in your case. | anywhere from 0.85 to 1 per cent carbon jn th case will give remarkable results if property hes treated. A closer adherence to this range js «&. cured by using the balanced compounds of the ca) bonizer manufacturers rather than by indiscriny. nately using natural carbonizers. However. fo, the most part, the fortified bone will give very y results and it is much more economical. Very Hest ther wear low. Of suc ACN) Antimony and the War The consumption of antimony in this country and Canada is estimated to amount at present to 600 to 7 tons per month, which is about the consumption in th country alone in peace times. Regular domestic sumption is now probably not over 50 per cent of nor mal, owing to the high price of the metal. Imports of the metal and regulus for July, 191i, were 2,439,601 Ib., as against only 856,653 lb. in July, 1914. Before the war about half the antimony was imported from Europe, but now it all comes from Japan and China, indicating the tremendous expansion there These countries are also exporting to England. American antimony is now appearing on the do- mestic market, the production being estimated at the rate of 100 to 150 tons per month, and it is claimed to be superior to the Chinese or Japanese. The Lavigne Gear Company, Racine, Wis., manu facturing steering gears for automobiles and similar purposes, has been reorganized under the name of Lavine Gear Company. The change in name is mate for the sake of simplicity. The officers of the compan) now are: President and treasurer, Herman A. Uihlew Milwaukee; vice-president, P. B. Wohlrab, former pr duction manager of the Lozier Motor Car Company and former master mechanic of the Maryland Ste Company; secretary, D. L. Robertson, formerly wit! Crerar, Adams & Co., Chicago; sales and advertising manager, E. M. McCaskey, former engineering 52’ manager of S. F. Bowser & Co. Important extension are being made in the plant to acommodate a great increased demand, both domestic and foreign. The pany is considered the second largest manufactur steering gears in the world. Newark, N. J., has reclaimed 170 acres meadows between that city and Newark Bay for mat facturing sites of an average of 10 acres per plot channel 20 ft. deep and 400 ft. wide has been dredge to connect the site with tidewater and the ocean ™ the present plan comprehends deepening the channe' ¢ the development continues, as in all 1100 acres ® available for reclamation. It appears that below a silt and underlying sand there is hard pan at & ¢®P* of approximately 12 ft. The Port Newark Termin as it is known, is also adjacent to trunk railroad !ine A new design high duty Q.M.S. cold metal —” to be put on the market in about a month by ™ Vulean Engineering Sales Company, Elston Ave Chicago. The machine is arrangea to provide as variable peripheral speed of the saw blade and a var™® feed Na r a Novel |, 1915 SYSTEM AND ITS ABUSE* Danger * Scientific Method Becomes Master and Not the Servant BY JOHN CALDER W in order to manage a business under- anage it through system. kness in any business if the responsible inable to give on demand a satisfactory is supposed to function, and we owe a ‘cht , tude to those who, during the last decade, o the front the issue that we must always three things, viz., whom we have to co- h. what we have to manage, and how we are complish the work. This knowledge, in should reach down to the performer of the ks. It may be accepted as a general rule selection and instruction of the human fac- nization and management will lead sooner ystematic functioning which will be a nat- vth of the needs of the business, while unvi- tape will always prove ineffective. PINK PILL FOR PALE PLANTS no magic about system, no matter whose y be attached to it. It is no pink pill for pale System is simply organized common sense. If for anything is so involved that its material nnot be easily comprehended, have nothing Set it before you as an axiom that no system is worth y more than it can earn. There are systems of doing things in certain plants to-day which are most ingenious and interesting and yet undesirable from the point of view of profit making. There are systems constructed with rejoicing and lax scrutiny in the years of plenty which are to-day eating off their heads because they have no reducing expense of operation for lean times. lhe first question which the experienced investigator lly puts, to himself at least, after all the facts are ble is not what systems did they have or not it “Is the business worth while anyhow?” This ile question either. Not a few systematizers have red valiantly over plants and made sincere promises tterment which were wholly negatived on the bal- because the businesses, irrespective of the ise, were inherently unprofitable ventures lave been readily classified as such with a the energy spent in spinning the web of a around them. ‘ I1ON AGAINST SYSTEMATIZING NEEDS CHECKING wr hole the tendency has been to over-elab- without regard to its profit-making utility premises; to construct ornament rather than to t ruction; to design systems on éxpensive rong enough to carry a great deal of busi- not exist and never will exist. A decided setting in which should not be allowed Too few people realize to-day on what re- margins many businesses which prosper ried and could not stand the infliction of nd costly plans of operation which guar- on of trade to justify them. “ PLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT we have gained much ground, particu- letails of system, but we have also at e to see the forest because of the trees. ce, the system known as scientific man- will remain as a monument to its gifted system has very broad and exclusive stent detail. It is the best articulated of ‘ing systems of business oversight, but it fective and economical scheme for solv- ead before the Efficiency Society, Lake acid, N. Y., Sept. 17. The author is presi- irers Equipment Company, Boston THE IRON AGE 1043 ing a number of business and industrial problems on which it has been tried. Nor was a trial at all necessary to prove this, and scientific management has suffered be- cause its limitations have not been recognized and its costly functionalization thrust upon small irregular in dustries not able to take full advantage of it. In many of our businesses to-day the margin of profit is so small, the labor items so low a factor in the total cost and the work of a few practical executives so economical that it would be folly to inflict upon them in the name of science a more expensive and less efficient routine. Exponents of scientific management have been known to hold that such businesses are inherently weak and should not exist; but science implies action in ac- cordance with the facts, and no system should be per mitted to be an end in itself, but shoyld submit at all times to the commercial test of profitableness THE REMEDY FOR UNWISE SYSTEMATIZING Now what is the remedy for unwise systematizing ? It is twofold. First, while holding the chief executive of a business wholly responsible for permitting momen tous changes in system it is always wise to give his sub- ordinates a chance to offer suggestions on a given plan of outside origin. If this is done the proprietors will be surprised at the number of things they assume about their business which are not so. A passion for facts should override all other considerations, even our most cherished ideas of system detail. The professional sys tematizer is not guiltless, for, having obtained the ear of the proprietor of a business he has sometimes ridden roughshod over the experienced executives, alienated their support, and pulled up finally a goodly distance along the wrong road to the ultimate discrediting of per- fectly sound ideas propagated unfortunately by inju dicious and unmannerly agents The second aid to correct perspective in applying system is a sound apprehension of what the scientific method essentially is and of its possibilities and rela- tion to the varying factors of business, which is an art rather than a science. At the request of the Committee on Administration of the American Society of Mechan ical Engineers three years ago I defined the scope of the scientific method in business as “the critical observation, accurate description, analysis and classification of all in- dustrial and business phenomena of a recurring nature, including all forms of co-operative effort, and the syste- matic application of the resulting records to secure the most economical and efficient production and regulation of future phenomena.” The ability clearly to perceive and avoid inutility in such research is frequently absent in men who are per mitted to systematize without thorough business experi ence. In all such cases wise, capable managements will save time and money by avoiding any attempts to es- tablish a science for irreconcilable variables or infre quent phenomena and will fall back upon an empirical but none the less “common-sense” solution of the problem. This necessity does, not reflect upon the scientific meth- od, which must always face very different conditions in industry and commerce from those met with in nature, and must constantly yield to and be measured solely by considerations of ultimate utility, of available capital and of current product and profit. HITTING HIGH SPOTS OF INEFFICIENCY In conclusion let me point out that in facing the ac- tual problems of industry with full appreciation of what the scientific method might accomplish under certain conditions it is not as a rule necessary or advisable to go into minute details before systematizing actively to some extent. A very comprehensive system takes much time and money to formulate and is rarely born made to order. The responsible executive is called upon to pro- duce rather than to ponder, and if he is wise he will hit the high spots of inefficiency and lack of system at rela- tively low cost and without delay, leaving the refine- ments to a later date and probably postponing some of them indefinitely. The law of diminishing returns will soon begin to op- erate unmistakably, and the point of maximum economy Ee Pio -p Pre Oe pe It aay ean ans Ts Ae x0 2 RNP LW or 1044 THE IRON AGE Noven will be reached before the ingenuity of an ardent syste- matizer is exhausted. The same considerations apply to the multiplication of useless records in production, cost- ing and accounting. It is well to be wise after the fact, but if the enlightenment is too long delayed the cost of procuring it is out of proportion to its value. One of our most noted engineering experts retained to investi- gate a well-known business declared that it appeared to him as if the man who had designed the recording sys- tems of the plants must have had a personal interest in some stationery concern. There are other benefits than economy and efficiency from the judicious systematizing attempted in modern business and industry during the last ten years. There is nothing so pleasing to an employee as to stimulate a mental interest in his daily work, and this the wise prac- tice of the scientific method always does. The persistent concern for the why and how of business conduct has lifted many a task from the level of dead routine and drudgery to an intellectual plane. There is a growing company who look to the earnest cultivation of the intel- lectual life as the saving and leavening power of our western civilization and of its institutions. It is fed from many sources, and more and more in all our human relations it is sure that no matter who may seem to rule in the nation the thinker is and always will be our mas- ter. Brass Furnaces Conveniently Arranged A battery of five, gas-burning, brass furnaces in- stalled in the foundry of the Ford Motor Company is interesting in connection with the arrangement for the remote control of the furnace operation and the system installed for drawing off the gases from the furnace crucible. From the handwheel stand shown in front of the furnaces, the operator has control of the gas pressure and the tilting of the furnace so that the dif- ficulties attendant upon handling the crucibles in and A Battery of Five Gas-Burning Brass Furnaces Arranged for Remote Control from the Handwheels in the 1. 1¢ 1915 out of the furnace at high temperatur The exhaust hoods are counterbalanced raised or lowered from a distance severa] of the furnaces. Steam Generation from Waste Heat { Kilns Thomas A. Edison has been grant (U. S. 1,148,832—Aug. 3, 1915) for a met ing the heat of gases escaping from rota the generation of steam. Attention is d prevention of trouble due to the dust i: h and to the prevention of interference wit of the kiln. The invention is based on th that the problem of the nondisturbance of the draft of the kiln is only susceptible of solution by the gener. tion of a constant quantity of steam, rega of be consumption of the engine or whether thi ronais at all. The quantity of steam generated is some greater than the maximum amount to be engine, the remainder escaping through a ; It is stated that the engine could be furnished with %& to 90 per cent of the steam generated thout dangering the draft of the kiln. The Workmen’s Compensation Board and the Stat will carry out the provisions of the new compensation and State insurance laws in Pennsylvania—were per. manently organized at a recent meeting in Harrisburg, Harry A. Mackey of Philadelphia, was selected chair. man of the compensation board and State Treasurer Young was made chairman of the insurance board. It was decided that the State should be divided into eight districts for the administration of the compensation lay, Both boards will have their headquarters in the Masonic Temple, Harrisburg, Pa. The new acts become effective Jan. 1. 4 F< regroune Shells of the Calibers Now in Service Comprehensive Information for Those Con- templating Munitions Manufacture Sizes of Projectiles Used by the Nations of the World BY C. A. TUPPER iction of war munitions, one practical ‘Ol which manufacturers have been con- erned is the working range of the equipment which t will be desirable for them to provide, having in view possible future requirements. In this the cal- ‘bers of the shells likely to be in greatest demand hy the various belligerent nations cuts a very con- siderable figure. At first the call was for 2.95 and in. shrapnel; then in rapid succession for 3.29, 4.5, 472. 5.87 and 6-in. high-explosive shells, and finally for the larger sizes, including 9.2, 9.45, 12 and 14-in. the minds of manufacturers who contemplate nto this work or increasing their facilities the questions naturally arise as to what is the t the shell calibers in actual service; what does the exact diameter of each measure; which are the most commonly used, and how are they distrib- ited among the various nations, both those now at war and others that may be involved? The ques- f which calibers were designed in inches and which in millimeters also has a more important bearing than might be imagined by the casual thinker The tables accompanying this article show the calibers of the ordnance and consequently of the shells used with it. They comprise the shells for all lasses—field, naval, coast-defense and even anti- aerial guns, in use to-day by the leading nations of the world. As a matter of convenience all figures below the heading have been reduced to an inch basis for purpose of comparison. The inch meas- urement, however, applies strictly and invariably only to ordnance used by England and the United States. The artillery and ammunition of other countries is figured in millimeters, except where it has been supplied by English or American ordnance works in accordance with their own standards. The arger metric calibers are also commonly designated vy centimeters; but here again, for uniformity and nvenient reference, all metric dimensions stated in ‘his article are given in millimeters. Other infor- mation supplementary to the tables follows: THE GERMAN HOWITZERS While an 18-in. gun for coast defence has been “signed in this country and shows in a list pre- vated by the Bethlehem Steel Company, the largest “es of artillery thus far subjected to the actual est of y ariare are those turned out at the Krupp ie in Essen, Germany, and the Skoda works of “sen, Austria. These take shells 420 mm. and 'm. in base diameter. The bore of the former ~bally exceeds 16.5 in., and the latter is a little Lf Thus far the use of such ordnance on lo ; vesigned Phe pean battlefields has been confined to howitzers Patel of the central powers; hence, as the ,.. re compelled by the sea blockade of the en- i De s or “allies” to rely entirely upon their tale there is no present likelihood that eon rks will be required to turn out 420 or — s. Nor is there any information avail- ng the weights of the high-explosive gineer, Chicago projectiles used with the howitzers of those calibers The nearest equivalent known to American ordnance experts, the 16-in. shell for coast defense artillery, has a weight of approximately 2100 lb. A Krupp gun of the same class (405 mm.) for land batteries calls for a hardened cap projectile weighing 2028 lb. (920 kg.), with a firing charge of 555 to 624 Ib. (252 to 283 kg.), according to the range required. Fragments of the German and Austrian howitzer shells secured on Belgian, French and Russian bat- tlefields show the same special construction as that of the 320 mm. or 14.96-in. shell next referred to. It was howitzers of the 380-mm. bore which bombarded Dunkirk from a distance estimated to be over 20 miles. The shells from these, as well as from the 420 and 405-mm. guns, have two copper driving bands and a front steadying band of the same material. For naval service the Germans have placed 380-mm. guns on the latest super-dread- naughts of the Ersatz Worth class. Ordnance of identical size is in use by Italy and has also been developed by France, while the Armstrong works in England have produced an equivalent in the 15-in. gun. For naval work this appears in the primary battery of the Queen Elizabeth operating at the Dardanelles, as well as in sister ships, which were not completed until after the outbreak of the war. The weight of the standard 380-mm. shell is 1675 Ib. (760 kg.), with a driving charge of 456 to 694 Ib., while the 15-in. shell varies somewhat either way from 1700 lb. The German 14.5-in. gun (370 mm.) was not a success. A 13.5-in. gun has been designed but is not in use. The French 340-mm. gun, equal to 13.35 in., is an odd size which has seen little service, while another that belongs in the same category is the 12.5-in. gun used by Japan. SHELLS FOR THE 12-IN. GUN Shells to fit the 12-in. gun, for many years the standard maximum caliber for the turret armament of battleships of the pre-dreadnaught class, are re- quired by all of the leading nations of the world and by some of the minor powers. For guns manufac tured in England and the United States the diam eter of the shell is exactly 12 in. In France, Ger many, Italy, Spain and other metric scale countries having ordnance works, it is figured as 305 mm The projectiles for the 12-in. gun and its equiva- lent vary a great deal in weight, according to length and composition... They range all the way from 772 to 981 Ib., the nearest approach to a standard being that set by the Krupps at 860 Ib. (390 kg.) and the American 870-lb. shell. Driving charges weigh from 213 to 357 Ib. The so-called 11-in. caliber is really the 280-mm. (11.02-in.) originating with the Krupps and pat- terned after them by the Skodawerke. It is used principally by Germany and some of the lesser pow- ers which have ordered Krupp ordnance. The Aus- trians have not taken to it to any gerat extent. There is no technical objection to this caliber, but guns designed for it have been found of little effect when opposed to the 12-in. size, and the widespread adoption of the latter “killed” it. .For German naval 1045 1 Linge ged i cabIeee e a i a: . np fae 1046 i service it was installed on the first dreadnaughts, of the Nassau class, but succeeding dreadnaughts were equipped with 305-mm. guns. The 280-mm. Krupp shell weighs 661 Ib. (300 kg.), while others of the same caliber vary between 505 and 761 Ib. Driving charges weigh 164 to 275 lb. France has developed the 275 and 270-mm. Creu- sot works guns, whose calibers are slightly larger than 10.8 and 10.6 in. respectively. For naval serv- ice these sizes are open to the same objection as the 11.02 in., i.e., the preponderance of the 12-in., and other nations have not followed the French lead. For field guns, however, the French seem to have found advantages in the 270-mm. (10.63-in.) cali- ber, and it is playing a considerable part in offensive action on the central Western front. An Austrian gun of which much has not been heard—in fact, practically nothing outside of that country—is the 260-mm. (10.24-in.) caliber manu- factured at the Skodawerke. The only shell used with this on which the writer has any figures weighs 572 lb. (260 kg.), and the driving charges are given as 141 to 1841b. The base of a 260-mm. shell picked up within the Italian lines west of the Isonzo front, however, indicated a somewhat heavier projectile, Calibers origi Table of Med to Light G illy designed 1 limeters t 13 120 10 Lot ct metri< juivalents ol ilibe rs de signed in inches 127 119.3 114 101.¢ equivalents in inches of metri calibers .. 72 ; t.14 +.1 Calibers designed inches 1.7 ! t (yermany 1 1.7 1.1 France 7 l England 7 j Russia . 1 7 15 } Austria 1 1.7 i United State 7 ; Japan 1.7 1 Italy 1 Sweden 1.7 i Holland 1.7 ' Denmark 1.7 ; Norw: Ly 4 7 ’ Greece 17 { } Roumani 1.7 ‘ Bulgaria 1.7 ‘ Servia 1.7 ; Turke I 1.7 ; Spain t : Portugal t. 4 : Argen tit ‘ 1.7 i Bri 1.7 Chile 1.7 4.1 and the range would tend to show a greater driving charge than even the maximum above named. THE 10-IN. GUN The 10-in. shell represents a size confined almost entirely to English and American practice, although Italy and the Argentine Republic have purchased Armstrong guns of that caliber. It is also listed in Befors tables as the 254-mm. gun, taking a shell weighing 441 to 564 lb., with a driving charge of 123 to 153 lb. The 250-mm. or 9.84-in. caliber appears to have been adopted in Sweden only. An armor-piercing naval projectile used for guns of this size weighs 462 lb. (210 kg.), with driving charges of 94 to 127 lb. A caliber designed as 240 mm., or 9.45 in., is one which has been very generally adopted outside of the United States, England, Russia and Japan. Aus- tria, besides using that caliber largely, has tried the 235-mm. or 9.25-in. gun. Projectiles for the former weigh 375 to 474 lb., with usual firing charges of 103 to 129 lb. The Krupp standard is 419 Ib. (190 kg.), with a firing charge of 113 to 173 lb. The last-named maximum indicates that the comparative ‘THE IRON AGE t, 1915 range of shells fired from the : considerable. England, which started to devel ’ and made deliveries of Armstrong nance of that caliber to Italy, compr ed o 9.2-in. (233.7-mm.) size, and still adheres ¢, a standard, despite the manifest adva war of interchangeability with French ordyane, ammunition. For naval purposes the , is abandoning that size. Some were { erly but they were worked off on Greece with the two battleships, and will be a source of { to that nation in providing shells for them. A German gun which has come under th ban as the English 9 in. is the 210-mn size. It was principally manufactured. shells, for Denmark and Norway, and bought } them, one is inclined to suspect, because the on. nance could be had at a bargain. It has als Befors rating. The weight of shells used with } are 249 to 309 lb., with driving charges of 62+ 84 lb. with THE AMERICAN 8-IN. CALIBER Enumeration of the above brings us to the Nations bers Used by Various & x S ) == io 10 Q st 6.2 ) { 31 0 2.9 2:7 2.56 2.2 3.29 j 31 (3.0 ) 95 2.7 2.06 2.24 ’ 31 a% YD ‘ 9 2.5 ; { 3.31 g 2.95 2.56 ) j 3.31 (3.03) 2.95 2.75 2.56 . 2.95 2.7 = 13 29 2.95 2.56 ee } 31 2.95 =s= 3.43 2.95 2.5¢ ee be 3.31 2.95 2.5¢ 0. 13 2.95 ==" 13 2.95 Se 2.95 2 ) 31 2.95 = =r 5.43 2.95 «of ~ - 3.43 31 2.95 : 3.43 2.95 2. 5¢ = 31 2.95 > 5% { 2.95 2.56 5 } 9 95 9 56 2 56 tinctively American 8-in. caliber, which has ee! tentatively copied in some foreign countries as W slightly larger 205-mm. size. While widely sc tered over the earth, however, as the result of sa® made from this country, the aggregate tonnage ” shells which can be fired from guns of the a caliber cannot be very considerable; and, outside Russia, which has been supplied with some >" shells from Japan, it is playing practically n° in the European war. The standard Bethlehem > shell weighs 260 lb. al Next in order are the 7.6-in. gun and the slight larger 194-195-mm. (howitzer) of France, te Eng: lish 7.5-in. gun and the 190-mm. or 7.4-in. ad auto-carriage rifle. Of these the 194-mm. size ™ been most widely adopted. It takes a sh ll weigh: ing 198 to 251 lb., with driving charges approxims ing 55 to 68 lb. For the 190-mm. caliber the weigr of the shell, Krupp standard, is a trifle under 2! lb. (95 kg.), with driving charges of 65 to 88 Ib. The 7-in. caliber, whose standard shell we! ight 165 lb., seems to be peculiarly American, while t¥ other odd sizes are the German 170-mm. (6.7-! which calls for a shell weighing 154 lb. (70 kg.) pelled by a charge of 48 to 63 Ib., and the Fre 2% } aT 1€1is which uses elongated pro gun S neavy. IUM CALIBER MOST GENERAL e to the ordnance which, of all the is the most generally used and taken into particular account when lities for the manufacture of ordnance ners tion, viz., the 6-in. English and American » 150-mm. artillery of other nations, both | as field pieces and for navai guns. ger who provides equipment for turning Any or their metric equivalents can al- rtain of a demand for them as long as is being done by the belligerents. in. shells range between 90 and 115 lb., r charges of 24 to 35 lb. The American r the projectile alone is 105 lb. Shells 5.9-in.) Krupp standard weigh 101 to 51 kg.) and require driving charges the ordnance last named and the Amer- which, with the British 4.5-in., will s into the discard after this war, are 140 and 130-mm. (5.5 and 5.1-in.) sizes. indoubtedly be abandoned also, as they use now. e below 6 in. which seems to have the French and German 120-mm. or it Ol THE IRON AGE 1047 1.72-in. caliber, that has been adopted | nearly a important nations. Shells used with guns of tl size range in weight between 43 and 62 Ib., the Krupp standards being 53 to 59 Ib. (24 to 27 ke on lb. Driving charges are from 13 to 22 Before settling on the 120-mm. caliber as a field piece and naval standard, the Krupps and the Creu sot works developed the 105-mm. or 4.14-in. size, and | guns turned out bi the Skodawerke; but Germany, Austria and France of this class were also largely do not appear to be using them to any extent now, | and their future service in war will probably be confined to the smaller nations who were unfor tunate enough to purchase them. The weights of the shells used with 105-mm. field pieces vary be tween 31 and 40 lb. (14 to 18 kg.) and their in pelling charges call for 9 to 15 |b What has been said of the 120-mm. caliber al: applies to the English and American 4-in. gun and the French and Austrian 100-mm. or 3.9-in. cannon, 88-mm. ordnance, originally pré s considerable also the German 16-in. though so many of all of these were vided that the percentage still in use Shells manufactured for the sizes mentioned rang in weight between 29 and 35 lb. as standards, but actual field service conditions have made any figure unreliable, as the tendency has been to use just heavy shells as the guns would possibly take, approximating the order to get service out of them i ‘ f t f i me J Ao Lem at nee 1048 4.7-in. calibers with which they are being replaced. Shells picked up on European battlefields and brought to this continent show by the condition of the copper driving bands that the rifiing of these odd-size guns has been badly worn, aiso that they are being utilized to a considerable extent for shrap- nel, which is generally confined to calibers between 75 and 88 mm. (2.95 to 3.46 in.). Shrapnel cases are, however, also fired from 150 and 120-mm. (5.91 and 4.72-in.) guns. THE 3-IN. CALIBERS The most widely used caliber below the 120 mm. is the French and German 85 mm. (3.31 in.), which reappears as the English 3.29-in. size. Then comes the celebrated French 75-mm. (2.95-in.), also in use by other metric scale nations, and the English and American 3-in. gun whose caliber is the equivalent of 76.2 mm. A German size is 77 mm., as well as 75 mm. The tendency at present seems to be to retain this size (2.95, 3 or 3.03 in.) for shrapnel, but to use high explosive shells of the larger caliber mainly, and the 85-mm. will probably be adopted altogether for small shells of that type unless super- seded by the new 90-mm., which has yet to be brought into service. Meanwhile, the French have extended the usefulness of the 75-mm. caliber by developing at the Creusot works trench mortars of that size. These will take the same shell as that used for the field piece, thus overcoming one diffi- culty experienced with the latter, whose trajectory is so low that dropping shells into a nearby trench of the enemy has often been found impracticable. At this point it should be noted that guns of 3 in. or under are ordinarily chambered for fixed am- munition, the projectiles used with them being each fitted with a brass cartridge case containing the driving charge. Ordnance from 3 to 6 in. is simi- larly designed, particularly the 4.72-in., or can be chambered for loose charges, with the powder in bags or cases separate from the projectile. Guns above 6 in. are usually chambered for loose am- munition only. Below the 75-mm. caliber are the 70-mm., 65- mm., 57-mm., 47-mm. and 37-mm. The three last named are in practically universal service, being known to the English and to Americans as 6-pound- ers, 3-pounders and 1-pounders. Their sizes figured in inches will be seen from the table. These find their greatest sphere of usefulness as rapid-fire naval guns. Shells for them are manufactured in government arsenals and the conditions of the Euro- pean war have not called for any great supply, nor do they seem likely to. Actual service with them has been principally confined .to patrol vessels equipped to hunt down submarines. THE ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS A more interesting and important development has been the relatively large prodlction of guns and shells for defense against air-craft. They are known as “anti-aerials.”” Of these the Krupp works manu- facture six standard sizes, whose calibers are equiv- alent to 5.91, 4.72, 4.14, 3.43, 2.95 and 2.76 in. The weights of the shells used with them, including cartridge cases and driving charges, are 101 lb. (46 kg.), 53 Ib. (24 kg.), 34 Ib. (15.5 kg.), 21 Ib. (9.5 kg.), 13 to 14.3 lb. (5.8 to 6.5 kg.) and 11 Ib. (5 kg.), respectively All of these will take shrapnel, and high-explosive shells are also used in the larger sizes. Similar guns and shells have been turned out by the Rheinische Metallwaaren & Mas- chinenfabrik (Ehrhardt) of Duesseldorf, Germany; by the Skodawerke in Austria and at the Genoa and Spezzia arsenals of Italy. In France, England and THE IRON AGE Nove: for Russian account similar provision h but concerning the anti-aerials of thes o- a writer has no definite figures. ie PENETRATING POWER REQUIR! For all of the shells above enum: ted an variable requirement is a certain stand: oe trating power or “perforation,” which saga manufacturer translated into terms ath, toughness, etc., shown by physical and anal analyses. To the ordnance expert, however this i expressed as muzzle energy and velocity oad penetration of wrought iron or soft stec! plate < cording to De Marres’, Gavre’s or Tresidder’s formule. For armor-piercing projectiles the pene tration test is made on Krupp armor stee] oh equivalent by the Krupp, Ehrhardt or Davis fo mule. In comparing muzzle penetration ‘oni a iron and steel not hardened, 1 in. thickness of steal is taken as the equivalent of 114 in. of iron, 2 that 10 in. penetration of iron plate would equal 8 in through steel, and vice versa. Other features of artillery rating which affes shell manufacture aside from caliber and penetra. tion are the length of gun bore, total length of the piece, weight of the gun mounted and interior meas urements which include the dimensions of the rified section, powder chamber, etc., as well as the nun. ber of rifling grooves and twist in calibers. Muzzle energy is expressed either in meter-tons or foot. tons. One metey-ton (dinamode) is equivalent to 3.2291 foot-tons, and conversely 1 foot-ton equals 0.3097 meter-ton. To take up all of these factors, in connection with the present article, will hardly be practicable: but the above will give an idea of the present range of shell production. The present war has demon- strated that there are in use to-day many mor calibers than have been found either necessary ot desirable; so that a natural process of selection wil bring about their reduction to a few effective stand- ards. Among these the calibers which seem most likely to survive are those which approximate 1.8%, 2.24, 3, 4.7, 6, 7.6, 9.45, 12, 15 and 16.5 in. Mean while, however, there will be considerable demand still for the 4.5 and 9.2-in. sizes and a limited need for 14-in. and other shells used for naval service. The information contained in this article and the accompanying tables has been gathered by the writer gradually and over a considerable period of time beginning with notes made in Europe before the war in connection with gun lathe work. As #@ outline it is probably more comprehensive than wil be found anywhere outside of army and navy bt reaus and established ordnance plants. If, howevet, any reader of THE IRON AGE observes errors & omissions of importance, this is a good time to cal attention to them, as the country needs all the i formation it can get on munitions manufacture. In respect to ordnance designed for use by the United States the list printed herewith is admittedly inco™ plete; but on that particular subject some reticen is probably desirable. American Army and Nav authorities are competent and prepared to 4 fat greater degree than they seem to be given credit fo and what they wish to have manufacturers in this country know regarding American ordnance ¥ probably be brought to their attention in due cou by the proper officials. Meanwhile, the exact 5 of foreign requirements has its lesson for Us. India produced 14,086 metric tons of magnes!® 7 1913 and 5676 tons of chrome ore as well as 165° 7 of tungsten ore. The iron-ore output was 370,54 according to the Geological Survey of India. OMIZING FUEL OIL* Steam Found Better Than Air in sen-Hearth Furnace Tests ittee on Steel Foundry Standards of ‘ise dei Foundrymen’s Association undertook | st year an investigation into the rela- “a ves and disadvantages of atomizing il w steam and with air in basic open-hearth furnaces to determine which of the two agents fera from every standpoint, including cost, of product, etc., both in basic and in \SIC TESTS AND THE FURNACE were begun Mar. 29, 1915, at the Commonwealth Steel Company, Granite City, Il, on an open-hearth furnace having a mag- nesite bottom, the bath of this furnace at the slag ine being 24 ft. 4 in. x 9 ft. 6 in. in area, and 21 ». deep at the center, 2 ft. back of the tap hole. he furnace at the time of the tests was receiving nitial charges of pig iron and scrap amounting to 56.000 Ib. The exact time for beginning the tests was purposely regulated by the condition of the fur- nace, on which test operations were begun when it was in perfect, normal condition, in the middle of its ampaign. It had made 275 heats since the last gen- eral repairs. The furnace presented no extraordi- nary details of construction from those usually found in steel foundries, and had no water-cooling equipment. The furnace stack was 100 ft. high, and had an inside diameter of 48 in. The oil was delivered to the burners at a pressure of 95 lb. per |. in., and the effect of pump pulsations was coun- teracted by a standpipe and air cushion. The oil used was that which is commercially known as fuel oil and came from fields near Law- renceville, Ill. A draft at the base of the stack representing 0.8 in. of water was adopted and main- tained throughout the tests. Reversal of furnace burners and valves were at 15-min. intervals. STOCK CHARGED In each heat 31,000 lb. or 55.3 per cent of chill Northern pig iron, 17,000 lb. of reasonably heavy foundry scrap, 8000 Ib. of scrap rails, and S400 lb. of limerock were initially charged. The average carbon content in the foundry scrap was 0.20 per cent, and the percentages of other elements ‘an be assumed to agree closely with the averages oted in the steel produced during the tests. Pur- posely the quality and physical characteristics of ne metal charged were maintained uniform and variable constituents kept low in all the heats nditions permitted, in order that oxida- ‘oss, quality of metal, ete., might be gaged in- cast In the air tests, the compressed air was delivered ma receiver showing 80 lb. gage pressure and fro oe to a pressure of from 40 to 60 lb. as de- ‘ired at the burner. The average temperature of ~ “lt was 97 deg. Fahr. No apparent unusual ~" “ct Was observed on the roof or bottom of the fur- ace, hor was any difficulty experienced at any time axing these heats. The average amount of Si hich was largely used for bottom re- 560 Tb. per heat. ‘eam tests, the atomizing agent was de- boilers showing 125 lb. gage pressure Associa rt submitted to the American Foundrymen’s Bu \tlantic City, Sept. 30, 1915, by President R. A. for th, ition, supervisor of basic atomization tests on steel foundry standards. 1915 THE IRON AGE 1049 and was superheated by passing through a coil 24 ft. long, made of 1-in. pipe, placed through the flue just outside the damper and throttled to a pressure varying from 40 to 60 lb. as desired at the burner. A pressure of 60 lb. was maintained until the stock was melted and the pressure was then reduced to 40 lb. to finish the heat. The degree of superheat varied somewhat and averaged 140 deg. Fahr., which was considered to be conservative for yielding the best results, as ascertained from experience. All members of the committee unhesitatingly agreed that the steam should be superheated, as otherwise there would be reduced efficiency due to saturation, the degree of which would vary greatly in different plants due to distances from boiler rooms and other local conditions. The condition of the furnace in every respect checked satisfactorily with the condition when air wis used. The average amount of magnesite used for patching bottom, was 350 Ib. per heat. On the assumption that in many plants it costs 2%% cents to compress and deliver 1000 cu. ft. of air at a pressure of 80 lb., the average cost of com- pressed air can be figured at $1.55 per heat; and ag 32 Seng Joint T i"fos Reducer J : Mie panei i Pipe Drown to 4 ot Othe [ i -- BGI (esses ‘se P - r The Open-Hearth Furnace Oil Burner taking a cost of 14.4 cents as representative for generating 1000 Ib. of steam and delivering it at a gage pressure of 125 Ib., the average cost of steam used in atomizing each heat is $0.403. The steels from the various heats made with each atomizing agent showed the expected uniform- ity; and the results by the two agents were closely approximate, according to both physical and chem- ica' tests. A comparative summary of results is here given, all items being averages: Comparative Summary of Results Alr Steam Weight charged per heat, Ib..... 57,880 57,727 Weight tapped per heat, Ib 53,246 53.351 Oxidation loss, per eent “4 8.006 7.58 Time per heat, charge to tap, hr. and min 7:45 7:52 Oil used ver heat, gal ‘ : 1210.7 1206.4 Amount of air used per heat, cu. ft Gane. ~siamewa Amount of steam used per heat, lb ; 3,493 Carbon, per cent.... 0.203 0.197 Phosphorus, per cent . 0.014 0.0133 Manganese, per cent 0.7556 0.737 Silicon, per cent. : 0.37 0.351 Sulphur, per cent. 0.0226 0.0239 Temperature of bath 10 min. before tap, , deg. Fahr. ..... : : 3,195 3,169 Flue temperature, deg. Fahr 1,139 1,112 Careful analysis of the tests herein reported in- dicates that no relation can be drawn between the results with either superheated steam or compressed air as to the quality of the metal produced, time re- quired for making heats, oil consumption or tem- peratures sec