The Iron Age 1913-06-05: Vol 91 Iss 23

THE | | * stablished 1855 New yY ork June 5. 1913 Vol. 91: No. 23 The Packard Motor Car Company, Detroit Bird's-eye view of the Packard plant. | building and tl the chassis division. In tl use, the service e dist The Packard Motor Car ahd Company, its product and A General Description of the Purposes, + nl ‘ > “Omm ; . . . re “ ec ote Plant, Methods and Organization for af eminent factors in the au- the Building of Motor Cars and Trucks tomobile industry They typify ne of the general i ! classifications into which motor vehicles are divided Intimate inf erning this plant and the methods employed ther re il ndary defens« gt msequence of more than general interest To the student may t t facturing methods there will be reflected a shop secondary ! rest ch seeks first to establish the most irate vhich the Pa ! treat t of the metals used in order to secure the de tabl rgestior bt é sit haracteristics of structure and strengt i | lesign I li which then holds its machine work within the miu I iri i limits of variance in measurements and finish and w lesign d it nally verifies its own best efforts with a rigid inspectior requirements of max m pt tion, ma he entire product at each stage of manufacture. And mes a minimum le ' the last, notwithstanding that the reasonable presumptiot rificed are of secondary, er¢ of accuracy already existing may give the inspection pra rary, for the purpose ( g max " tice the appearance of redundancy strength or attractiveness ‘ ‘ eh, Be RAE grape cherry ie yar’ . xterior of the Forge Shop Showing an Interesting Type of Construction for the Side Bays in Which the Furnaces are | The Side Bays Provide for Their Own Ventilation, Leaving the 4 ' to Dissipate THE IRON AGE AB. ay Va Sax + le f £ +. . A as 3 arr iY +e AUey — Roof primarily to meet certain requirements and th equipment and manner of machining are a quently, the cost of that machining immediatel) production is cut down In the manufacture of all the parts for ca the plant is self contained. A general view of the plant, the number of buildings and ment may be obtained from Fig. 1, the heading the article. In the immediat: illustration is the truck division building and power plant. On the boulevard, the first building is occ fi experimental department. ‘ buildings immediately behind includes the heat treatment, machin¢ subse unts and ' -enect per pec foreground offices and ig. 5—View Showing the Front Axle in the Press | Formed, but After Bearings at Each End Have B chassis and body building departments, whil« background about one-half mile distant from building are the foundry and forge plants witl tached boiler house. spond to the six department, namely: The buildings thus indicate Forge, foundry, chassis cludes the machine shop, heat treatment and sembly work—body, truck and service. is further subdivided into machining of The ma motors, transmission, etc., withi buildings and on certain floors The forge division is housed in an isolated | ft. long and 72 ft. wide, to the design of whicl attention has been given than is usually paid t ig. 4—General View in the Forge Shop Showing the Center Bay with Steam Hammers on the Left, the Board Drop Har Right and the 1000-ton Press in the Foreground The Hoods Over the Furnaces Protect the Belting by Which the are Driven divisions of the general manufa departments, segregati i hammer shop. The essential consideration was the proper width of the sh This ‘ lished by a trying-out process, first of the required tween the side-walls and heating furnaces, then ace between furnaces and hammers necessary for 1 ; enient and efhcient handling of the heated stock in unobstructed aisle through which men could material could be handled without interference yperation of the hammers on either side, and in er across the entire floor space to the opposite e result was a width of 72 ft. overall. provisions for lighting and ventilating are strik- ures of the building. The roof over the center uble monitor with all sides in full glass and with ng panels operated by the Pond continuous sys- xtending the full length of both large and small rs. These monitors are required only to handle the ind heat from the hammers as the roof over the side which the heating furnaces are located, is de- vith the slope reversed as shown in Figs. 2 and 3 ample width for the central passageway to pro- f being deflected inward the rising air in the side thus diverted outward through the continuous for which the roof arrangement provides. These entilators extend the entire length of the building the same time do not encroach upon the ample side- ghting panel above the row of side entrances. By f these entrances practically the entire side of the ng is thrown open. The protecting doors are hinged PACKA Mi M en Hi 28) C +— La M ganese ' S| S86 a if , a 4 0.008 x x ¥ 400K ‘ YF. Q h in ) ward because the pl en 274 ma g : —___—} TT ag - I] ot. < 1| P oz w so |x S 6 Me ‘ « : TF ote eading \ | 1} | arbonize } | Tough core and fine hard case i F ue a ot & to 80°F.) or oil (@ to 70°F Rehe 400 and quenct water (60 to 80°F ) or 1425 and quen 10 70°F.) I | hard case only desired. Use the last rt the above treatment -Sample Curve of Critical Temperatures and Specifica in that Connection : THE IRON AGE 1349 S that the may folded up vertically n as indicated in the general view of the building 2, which manner of hanging the door leaves tl pen in adverse weather conditions, yet prot irtificial illumination is obtained from ( De! mercury arc lamps hung high in the center ls ne of the few forge s s equipped wit! service crane, the center bay being spanned by Northern crane which is i nstant use for te ring Se « iter ils : no t ma : sle hbetweer row hammers rl stean i I ludes tw 4 \ <0 hree mo |} j =O 00 | n ade n to thes s there ar hammers, including one rated at 2000 Ib., t at 500 | two at 00 | € at Soo | and one at 6c I i steam main steam IT the ham Fig. 8—View of the Case Hardening Furnaces. The V SigT l ur e ire ~ | } ‘ s brought t gh a tunnel from the boiler | I re I pm and the iT iT r conduit along tl hammers so that the lead t ich hamme i erhead p ping The rang ent a vater ng and €} 1 | leads 1 it ll ter! eT vith get il lighting eliminat Dhe vard dr i belt driven, tl elt eing tected fr the at turnaces t A ‘ | £ tne ls shown in Fig. 4 The steam hammers wer ult by Niles Bement Por mpany and the ard drops by E. W. BI Compar The trimming presses were furnished also by the \ Bliss Company and are geared to individual motor heavy forming work such as the front axl tthe n | gs. 4 ind 5 two | racute resses ar nstal 1000 tons and one of 500 tons capacity. Fig of the steps in the forging of a 5-ton truck front axle fr 144 x 44-in. billets The west end of the building is arranged with first and second floors, the ground floor serving as a stock roon oii ' 8 Gate a ” 7 shipping room and cold imming departmen he dic ‘ 1 ; ' | q ‘ making shop is installed on the floor above The profiling equipment includes one of the new type Pratt & Whitn: aT ymbined No. 2 and 3 profilers, six No. 3 Becker, three No. 2 and two No. 6 Becker machines and one No. 5 Brown & Sharpe machines. The planer and shaper tools re spond in number and size Liberal attention has also been given to the handling 1350 THE IRON AGE can be unloaded shears and saws proper lengths. track connects th with the forge material is tra the industrial tri to the heating fur: The attention forging departme: keeping with th being placed up motor car constru eraily and in th of the forgings is nounced. Unfort treatment of steel apparent, like the body finish, and with which intelligx lurgical treatment rated into car const fers accordingly. the more satisfact practice in which d ciples, scientifically and proved in servi hered to rigidly and standing. That th treatment may here differ tail from others admit with equal sincerity is of less moment. In the heat treating work, eff been concentrated upon f things: I, insistence that t steel used shall conform to ar Fig. 9—Igdicator and Recording Board a m Ww!) a irnace Control is Handled, Operator alysis specification; 2, the accu — — ' rate determination of the critical temperatures of all the steel of raw stock for the forge department. Adjoining the used; 3, the development and perfection of temperature res hammer shop is a stock shed, equipped with an electri istering instruments, to record actual temperatures in tl the selection of design and arrangement yield proper and most efficient results. Fig. ( overhead traveling crane and arranged with respect to in- furnaces; 4, coming trackage so that the billets, bars or other materials furnaces to arbonizing Furnaces in the Packard Plant at may be accomplished following heat treat sting and bending to which a forgin ! vhile cold without failure of the steel st age. of carbon or alloy steel to be used varies ratively wide limits among automobile buil ide largely upon the basis of individual ex essential is that after treatment the ste¢ to the requirements under certain cond ler that these results may be tained witl sistency, it is primarily desirable that t nearly uniform in analysis as possible, and t edingly narrow limits of variance are pri 1d consideration, involving the critical t he steel used, is obviously a vital one nation of these temperatures an apparatus « Leeds & Northrup, Philadelphia, is used teel is inserted in a pure nickel plug ar ted by two porcelain insulated k tiometer and the other a reflecting galvanomet he potentiometer reading the temperature is and from the galvanometer deflection the differen eading between the constant nickel and the test piece el is ascertained. This deflection is magnified on a ntal scale by reflection through a long radius. From two readings the curve shown in Fig. 7 is then Che curve on the right is the curve of ascending tures and the important one. The three critical ratures, the first at 1346 deg., the second at 1486 deg third at 1628 deg., are at once conspicuous This representation of the characteristics of the steel schedule of heat treatment for obtaining any results equally apparent. A typical heat treatment for the steel, the characteristic curve of which en + is included in the chart, Fig. 7, and is self ex ng determined the heats to be applied and their equal attention has been given to the means for the temperatures accurately. In Fig. 8 is shown the lead bath hardening furnaces. id of depending on the readings of the more com- sed thermo-couple, connected in the usual manner » determination of the temperature of the bath, a re- type of pyrometer, made by the Leeds & North- npany, has been adopted. In general terms this de- quivalent to a variable resistance on the central wn in Fig. 9, balanced against the resistance of Fig. 11—View Along the Front of the Battery of Heat T: THE IRON AGE 35 Ai l i \ Vano! er ¢ inected a ss 5 wo esiStal dia £ luated 1 degrees t ten rature sa , ‘ ] } ‘ | i + rres i t! ijus tl ul 5 at t era us resista S m \ 1¢c Ba i s at les r is W 7 ntion sof I 5 i na \ ' eT n ide 9 s¢ . i ‘ ; » 3 1 i n ‘ if { lus it I > I . ‘ ‘ ‘ throuol + + S es [ rie 5 t { s be i 11 j : ‘ g ? S t cing rsor eanat ‘ lines tf : ‘ ‘ | eft nN ting Fu | (ue g i Set ee} n nd | $ cor illy checking up the actual temper tures in the seve é As shown in Fig. 8 there ar 7 ; ’ - ‘ placed conspicuously at each furnace a red and white light. The hghting of the mtrolled from a central board and indicates that the adjacent furnace requires regulation r is to be shut off [lo imsure the light being seen the board operator rings an electric gong, upon which signal each furnace operator looks at his light In Fig. 10 is shown a group of furnaces in which tl medium-sized parts are heat treated And in Fig a particularly interesting arrangement of the large fur naces for heavy work in shown These furnaces are oil fired, the ymbustion chamber being at the side, and th flame being deflected over an arch into the heating cl ber, in a manner especially designed to produce a uniform ial temperature at all parts of the hearth. These furnaces are also used for carbenizing. One the interesting details of the practice here relates to th experimentation with carbonizing compounds and with packing boxes As the result of the experiments made, the more or less common carbonizing material. raw bone. was discarded and a compound adopted which is used thre: times before being considered worthless, the penetration b« ing uniform with the second and third usage The fre- quency with which common gray iron packing boxes crack when subjected repeatedly to temperatures of 1500 to 1800 : . ‘ ,or - ‘ : . ‘ ‘ eg wa : nstant ‘ ’ tr ple ‘ astin gs hil oiving 1352 THE IRON AGE hard white iron box solved the diff tv. t tine be between 60 and 7o deg. The cooling syste ing malleablized with use by the same hich cat a nest of pipes placed on the roof of the bonizes the steel Thess <es devel ! t s, have a whi the oil passes during the winter seasor much longer life than grav iro! al re no more \s shown in Fig. 11 the quenching tank expensiv« Hoor, the bottom of the tank protruding int Unusual attention has also been n in tl eat treat elow, where all of the pipe connections ar ing plant to the matter f quenchins lt has en s VI handling of the steel into and out of the tanks to be of utmost importance in the obtainins f uniform easier physical properties that not only the heating of the steel Like the forge shop, the foundry also present shall be known and that the distribution of heat through usual construction details. A general view of out the piece shall be uniform, but also that the temper is shown in Fig. 12, from which view the t ature of the liquid in which the successive portions of any ment, combining the sawtooth and monitor ideas lot of pieces for which identi al properties are desired are clearly apparent. An interior view showing th cooled shall be maintained constant This is almost impos struction and the proportion of light panels toget! sible without artificial means for cooling and ample stor- the Drouvé operating mechanism for ventilation age. For this purpose a refrigerating plant built by the trated in Fig. 14. The roof arrangement is an adapta Frick Company, Waynesboro, Pa., is installed with capacity of the roof design of the foundry of the Brown & Sharps sufficient to maintain 10.000 gal. of oil at a temperature Mfg. Company, Providence. Flaming arcs are used for ar Fig. 13—Passageway which Parallels the Foundry and Into which the Storage Bins for Sand, Stone and Other Material Open. Attention has Been Paid to the Construction and Lighting of this Part of the Foundry THE IRON AGE n Che roof trusses of str ind cast-iron columns An unusu ias been given to the arranger in which the raw matet nly calls attention to the tion used throughout the foun covered areaway well lighted the various sand, coke and st of this raw materials ming material, is shown 1354 THE IRON AGE 16 x 16-in. heavy double shaft machines, manufactured by Henry E. Pridmore. A view of the cores in the oven rack is shown in Fig. 15. The foundry, core room and brass foundry floors are made continuous with no separating partitions. It is thus possible to accommodate the floor space to the requirements of each department with the greatest ‘flexibility and also contributes to the easy and rapid handling of materials. A portion of the core room and one of three 16 x 14 x 5 in.-Pridmore rockover drop : ; core molding machines is shown in Fig. 14. There are two No. 60 Newton cupolas. Amalgamated Scales Not Yet Settled On Tuesday and Wednesday, May 27 and 28, a confet is building a milling machine with constar drive, which is especially designed for hea Made Up in Three Westinghouse electric motor, which is mounted on adjustable bracket, and the power is transmitted throug a pair of reduction gears, which are mounted inside t ence was held at Detroit, Mich., between the wage com mittee of the Amalgamated Association and James H Nutt, commissioner, representing the Western Bar Iron \ssociation. No agreement was reached. It is stated that the Amalgamated Association does not expect the manu facturers to grant the advance of 15 per cent asked in be half of finishers, but will insist on the advance of 5o0c. a ton for boiling. It was decided to at West Baden, Ind., commencing T A meeting between the wage tin plate mills of the Amalgamated hold another meeting uesday, June 10 mmittee for sheet and \ssociation and a num ber of the independent manufacturers of sheets and tin plate was held in the Fort Pitt Hotel, Pittsburgh, on Thursday, May 29. The new scale mills do not call for any particul paid men. The manufacturers str vance at this time, contending that Ss proposed for thes ar advances for high priced labor, most of the advances being on the lower ngly oppose any ad the business outlool is uncertain, but they would probably be willing to con tinue the present rates for the year beginning July 1. No Motor-Driven Constant-Speed Milling Machine Designed ! agreement was reached, and it was decided to have anothe1 meeting at West Baden, Ind., on Monday, June 16 The fact that no of the wage scales does not indicate that there will be labor troubles this year in the mills controlled by the Amalgamated Association. On the contrary, it is strong] asserted that satisfactory settlements of all the scales are likely to be reached before the present scal June 30. settlement has been reached on any es expire on The Laclede Steel Company, St. Louis, Mo., manufac- turer of rail-carbon steel bars for reinforcing work, also angles and agricultural shapes, announces the appointment of Theodore Geissmann & Co., Inc., 72 West Adams street. Chicago, Ill., as its authorized district sales agent in the Central West. for the distribution of its products machine. type of machine, since the pull at the periphery cutter is the same at any given surface speed, irresp The gears and bearings are automatically lub base. Another pump supplies the lubricant to th and the used oil flows back by gravity to the reserv the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San cisco, that all exhibit palaces will be under constru luly, is being kept by the Building and Grounds mittee. Several contracts were let in May. A Constant-Speed Milling Machi, 1110 The Kearney & Trecker Company, M cutting. \utomati: provided for the gear and also the milling The driving shafts made of case harden knee is of box sectio1 on the top, an arrar it is emphasized, adds and rigidity of the work table projects bearings and protects t! and chips by this cor solid steel bar to wi supports are clamped « lel with the spindle ar over arm. The arm br form a tie between the knee and help to prevent springing in opposite di: spindle is made from a and runs in tapered bron A self-contained reversing ism is provided for the that right or left hand « used. The column is massive one-piece casting, r by internal ribs, the weig! sufficient to render masonry dations unnecessary where tl possesses sufficient strength port the load. The machine is driven by a 5-! Duty and Fast Cutting \ constant-speed drive was adopted f the cutter diameter. supply of oil being forced up by a pump fr base from the work table. xf The promise made by President Charles C. New 20-In. Geared Head Lathe secure any one of the 18 spindle speeds read the special features characterizing an im ceared head lathe, which has been brought a Company department f the Worcester, Mass The lathe ntrolled from the apron and in addition t the lathe vided can be s« Reed e Company, speed changes readily available while nv feed within the range pr simple lever movement. be noticed from the accompanying engraving \f heavy construction throughout. The head the geared pattern and 18 spindle speed changes ly secured with 13 gears, by pulling a lever, as out na the speed index plate. It is pointe: ire always in mesh, it is impossible to dat shock when changing speeds being taken ction clutches. The gear train in the head the greatest number of speeds 1 any combination of the ged to secure itl Same number speed changing levers are arranged so that gear ratios cannot be engaged the is equipped with a spindle reversing mechan 1 in the headstock and consisting of spur gears ble friction clutch. These gears are not em- e the lathe while work is being done, but are ved 20-In. Geared Head Lathe in Which & Large Numbe y to reverse the spindle. The mechanism is con the apron and enables the operator to verse the spindle from his natural hich travels with the carriage. It is emphasized is control is highly sensitive, thus enabling the oper start, stop or reverse the spindle instantly. The clutch employed is of a special patented type t e changing of speeds quickly and safely while th« running and under load possible pron and rest are of heavy construction. The securely gibbed to the bed and has long bearings end of the rest in front, directly under the tool he inside and for the entire length of the rest side of the bed in the back. It has four screws vel block, two on each side. The reverse lever at nt of the apron moves a double bevel pinion and can tor feeding in either direction or in the neutral posi- h will stop all gearing in the apron. Graduated ading in thousandths of an inch are furnished ss feed and compound rest screws. athe is equipped with a quick change gear mech- iving 60 changes to both the lead screw and the All of the gears in the front box are made of he lead screw is cut from a special grade of steel feed rod drives the apron mechanism, thus re- An start, stoj } position by the lead screw exclusively for thread cutting. locking device connected with the reverse lever the half nuts from engaging with the lead screw THE IRON AGE 135 oa whil the teeds a engaged Ss iKiINng s engage ad s \ a tn teed rod at tl s l e | s a \ a lara ( imeter s | aving a wide ce al running on il] url le vr é nsta Spee I ctw A } I Ss « nstant pow¢ i Ss S g n at the t I esired, the lathe ( e an ped with at Oneida Community Enlarges Its Plant (Oneida Communit Ltd.. Oneida. N. \ Ss ¢ ' vt nr a3 ldit ‘ } 2 f Ly ew ep! I iding Se 1 ‘ ' iblewar ent at Sherrill, N. ¥ ins by ) , ? , i m riers ¢ ce i ‘ \cwa ‘ ] ] } : \\ iis nas . . ery cti , ] $ ct l Ww f I the Amer ' npany The Iding ipe . Iss xX ” \ wm , , r 7 ; ‘ ‘ i Init WwW ( i ad ( 1? 1 , , three 1 st c lea 5 ‘ ' ror | ‘ il et il Dhe ex T [ if ri I K yenee,r ver ncret rept ng 11 sme “— . ‘ lw \ C RidssS rt i re rst tw ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 1¢ é é ei t lating an s] n will be without columns, 55 x 155 ft. The clear led by means of steel trusses spanning the entir: ‘ the head of the T, and this section will have a sloping f which will surmounted with a large elect If [The remainder of the building will have a flat 1 i s rounde: i parapet The plas provide for repr ; sta cast exte! r towers I tor tw ervice eleva f The heating will be taken care of by means of direct steam and some forced fan ventilators will be pr led he best of plumbing and interior equipment will be pro- ded throughout The building will be ready for ancy about January |! All inquiries with reference t ntracts supplying f mate als, et I Id be addressed the engineer or Griffiths & Pierce, weneral contractor Ut i Low grade iron ore and mine refuse will henceforth sed exclusively for the permanent improvement of highways, under State aid, in Ashland County, Wis. T! county board of supervisors has abrogated its abeoeds | for the crushed stone supply It is believed that ore will ; be generally used for road building, thus relievine tl 4 mines in northern Wisconsin of a problem of the , 7 tion of waste ; The Otis Elevator Company of Missouri will have its main offices the new two-story building in St. Lou i recently mentioned in these colum ‘ i tion for repair ind warehot purposes r m4 « Making Pressed Steel Pipe Unions Radical Innovations in Material and Proc- esses Large Cold Drawing from Strip Stock— Individual Motor { eel uni 1S é fected and is eing manufactured the Marl mpany, Chi ago. It is de in sizes f1 n 3 in. and idapted t ll pressures u { le€a ral ré rem«¢ eS he s indicate These union en ( 1 I rawn from fiat 1] Cont the nions al etofort irts i he I | f ' | 7" ann¢ tec 5 erie = 5 ni castings equally portant i ( ainte! nts the fact that with the union made as t ne he same material as the pipe which it nt il n the union is always the same as that { pipe In contrast, the expansio1 f the hot steel pipe on a eam line where the union is malleabl yroduces a permanent set in the malleable uniot ral expan yn of which is not so great, witl it when the pipe cools a tight joint no longe: i id a leak follows. Tightening up the union t case affords a temporary cure, but the above process is repeated with the next heating of the pipe and usly the limit t which the union may be strained by this re-tightening is oon reached, requiring its replacement. Conversely, brass unions when hot will expand more rapidly than the steel and ipe are likely to leak according]; the Mark Parts Mfg. ¢ wing ly tandard tor Drive Presses With the Mark union, possibility of leaka iced by the fact that this union is thre pipe threads, SO n the thread taper to a tighter joint tl h the ordinary union commonly t igh. Tests have demonstrated that t inion, arising out of the superior mate is made, is sufficient to crush the end e when pulled up on the taper thread uld result ordinarily in the bursting nds of a cast union. The efhciency of this union ich is unchanged, except for increased I go] it the entire fa I es essure requirements, for whi service designs have een roune necessa vn the three parts of the union includin emale ends and coupling nut and a cr e cross-section it will be noticed that the oint is in accordance with more recent pract sts of a brass ring inserted in the femal union This is also cold drawn from flat st tl in from the strip, and the second piece the manner in t} Ll a ] a adapted to the 11 j Te One quently annealed. ‘| operations in making all thr: he involved are somewhat similar and except { no machine cutting. They are ir first piece shows the disk which is le union g, involve a The ume This press is shown in Fig. 1 and drawing type with press. ouble-acting toggle press One end of the piece is the be subsequently pressed into The opposite end cluding 5/16 in. itself the ack on is also rm. for of the Heavy Double-Acting Toggle Drawing Presses ¢ Stamped from Strip Steel and Cupped 1356 drawing of deep shells in plate wy ' | lis disk is cupped and punched out at the end ' n 3 THE IRON AGE 1357 threading The coupling nut is I] ned in hexagonal shape suitable for the ap vrencl The compression of the lip end f the coupling for the seat bearing i1 ptionally heavy pressure which gives to tl hard structure and a true, polished surfa 1 ] +h } | whict nis peration 1s nish s 1, ' ' ? ‘ | ng the umon parts es i ‘ level + ] y ‘ l¢ el Ss tS Tea « e¢ S A eT ‘ sil ited castings the commer al and I t 55 I Ma Mi ( xclusive plant for ts inu I ic a x) ft VW Ving 7 x j ewor! vitl the - ‘ \ ? | lighting panels e type ecial It and nst lle t Tole \ ( is indicated in Fig i dividual driving motors ndling “— . ‘ resses st f 1) lowing ft TT nan cally I I] United Metal Trades Association ( )thcers | we er icy tint t ] ()r ITT { | | 4 4 | , ' ‘ ‘ ‘ t A ’ Ly Roe M act \ 7 Tag \ | ' oe ‘ 7 nian ‘ a4 1 ‘ ‘ Stani¢ vViaVall Armstrong ichinery : + Tut i”) rres I eT | : T T) \ t ruett, Halli ‘ I ficer | ‘ etitete ene : } : Vill at a Croat TS y : Aa r 4 : . \ , , \ . rt, a a : ' . : “ 4 . . 5 retal at n (sermar I tnre tet ' ' . ' Straight Sided Double Gear Press on Which the Metal ertain feature ‘ tariff | are not a Flange is Pressed Into Its Finished Fort 1358 THE IRON AGE The Corrosion of Cast Iron Reviewed Its Nature and Causes and the Practice to Secure Resistance to Destruction BY RICHARD H. GAINES* Generally speaking, cast iron resists corrosion better than any other form of iron or steel, the close-grained iron being less acted on than the more open-grained varie- ties. Why some cast irons corrode much faster than others when subjected to the same conditions, how the corrosion can be minimized and the influences which pro- mote this trouble, are all questions of vital interest. The Nature of the Corrosion 1 Unfortunately, more than any other metal, iron is sub- ject to deterioration by oxidizing, the effects of which are much aggravated by the fact that the oxide formed lacks the property of adherence which, in the case of other metals, limits oxidation to a mere superficial action the oxide itself forming a protective coating for the interior of the mass. The precise influences which operate and the changes which occur when iron rusts have formed the subject of a number of scientific investigations, but it cannot be said that any final agreement as to their exact nature las yet been arrived at. The electrolytic theory of corro- sion is now provisionally accepted by most authorities on the subject. The two essential factors which determine the corro- sion of iron in water and in aqueous solutions are the presence of water in its liquid state and of oxygen. It is well established that no rusting takes place either in air free from moisture or in water free from air. While has been proved that carbon dioxide is not essential to the process as formerly held, it may be stated that any acidity increases the rapidity with which corrosion takes placé, and the presence of alkaline substances, such as lime, inhibit rusting. The latter fact is of the utmost importance with the use of iron and steel in concrete. Influences Which Promote Corrosion Dr. H. M. Howe says: “Electrolytic action surely hast- ens corrosion very greatly, and in practice it may well be true that nearly the whole of corrosion is electrolytic.” The writer has always believed that the only corrosion of iron that proves destructive, save that due to stray elec- tric currents, is due to differences of solution pressure at different parts of the metal. The subsidiary constituents of iron and the presence of rust films or even protective coatings, where flaws arise in them, act energetically in promoting decay. When two different substances are separated at one point by a liquid in which one of them is soluble, and are connected at some other point, an elec tric circuit is formed similar to that produced when the poles of an electric cell are connected. The electric energy is derived from the solution of the material; that is, from chemical action which would otherwise result in evolution of -heat. Such electrolytic action invariably inanifests itself when moisture, impregnated with acids from the atmosphere or salts in solution, obtain access to two different constituents of iron, and can even take place between iron and rust, or between iron and paint, if the latter is so far deprived of its oily covering as to become a conductor. Cast iron, for example, with its in- soluble graphite and relatively soluble ferrite, affords a typical medium for such action in water or any electrolytic solution. Again, when iron is in contact with another metal. a similar action may take place. It does not follow that the iron will in all cases be the material which is dis- solved in electrolytic actions, but in all ordinary cases except when zinc is the metal in contact with it, it is the iron which suffers solution. Influence of Contact Between Iron and Other Metals The following law applies: a—When iron is in contact with one of the less noble metals (more electropositive, as zinc, for instance) in the series of contact potential differences and both metals are placed in aqueous solutions producing corrosion, the cor- *Chemist, Board of Water Supply, New York rosion of the iron decreases while that of is accelerated, and, b—When iron is in contact with a nobl electronegative, as copper) in the same se: conditions, the corrosion of the iron is lar lor the production of the effects unde: unnecessary that there should be sufficient ference between the two metals placed in lead to a visible decomposition of the wa effect is observable at even a very low ence, though it naturally increases as this According to Professors Heyn and B; Lichterfelde, the contact of iron with c corrosion on an average by 25 per cent. in th water supply, the corresponding figure being in artificially prepared sea water. By special if was proved that the decomposition of wat part in the reaction. The effect of the cop; causes the oxygen in the water to act mor retical upon the iron electrode than when there is n Der contact with the iron. Where there is no oxy; tion, the iron even when in contact with attacked. Tests showed that iron in contact with ni in water, corrodes about I5 per cent. more thar in contact with nickel, Tests showed that cast iron does protect ste rosion of the latter is decreased by 50 per cent is allowed free access to the water surface. Contacts Between Specimens Cut from the Same Bar Heyn and Bauer found that two specimens taken fror the same iron, but worked up differently (by rolling ing, heating, etc.) and placed in water in contact wit cach other generally show an electric potential differenc and this would tend to prove that they have an influen one upon the other in the matter of corrosion; the iro: which happens to be in a less noble state is attacked mor cnergetically and protects the more noble one. Such in (luences are commonly undervalued by technical men. [It must suffice in a paper of this scope merely to mer- ion some of the corrosive agencies without undertaking tc treat them all separately. Iron always corrodes most readily when subjected to the alternate action of wet an dry. Several factors contribute to this, the most portant of which is that at its surface in contact wil ordinary atmosphere water is saturated with oxygen a iis corrosive powers are consequently at a maximun \round the water line of bridge columns and _ other structural work the engineer and painter must therefor xive particular heed Effect of Sea Water Unprotected cast iron, if long exposed to sea water undergoes complete disintegration, the iron is dissolve away and a soft, spongy mass of graphite, carbid iron and other substances is left: Under the influenct electrolytic action the electronegative carbon is left, whil the electropositive iron is dissolved. When cast rot is exposed for long periods of time to the continuo! action of sea water, more or less in the complete absenc of air, as, for example, at considerable depths below t! surface of the sea, it undergoes oxidation to ferrovs oxide, becoming extremely soft, although at the same tim: it may retain its original shape. The carbon content the metal is usually thrown out as a graphitic mass throughout the pores of which the ferrous oxide is lodge The specific gravity of this material is only about on sixth of that of the original metal. A classical instance of the corrosion of cast iron sea water is given by the Swedish chemist, Berzelius Cannon balls raised at Karskrona from a ship which hac been sunk for 50 years showed that the metal had bec entirely converted into a porous graphitic mass, which spontaneously heated when exposed to the air. Many other specific examples of the destructive action of s¢4 water could be cited. Experiments have demonstrated, however, that cast iron is much more resistant than steel or wrought iron to corrosion in foul water and in s¢ water, while there is little difference in fresh water Blast furnaces in different localities produce different qualities of pig iron, according to the ore and fuel avail- able. Also the chemical composition of the iron from eeTl rnace varies within certain ranges according ngencies of smelting. These facts must be if corrosion is to be minimized by the use ty cast iron. In considering this phase of is important to remember that iron is a eadily combines with or dissolves nearly all ents. It is also umique in the fact that very es of impurities suffice to change entirely its cteristics. control of unavoidable impurities, their listribution and careful furnace treat ns that will improve the rust-resistant qual n. If the metal is left with the “skin” a the mold it is less easily corroded than that en machined. When the iron is cast in the ems to take place some union between the inside surface of the mold whereby a very ious coating or skin is formed. This outer a preservative coating much in the same way iron are protected by the film of oxide | Bower-Barff process. Cast iron protected al coating of slag from the molds resists vell. This is no doubt the secret of the greater ffered by cast-iron pipes to the destructive trie tray electric currents. The protection affordgd us skin cannot be relied on indefinitely, how fter it is worn away cast iron corrodes even than wrought iron or steel. With the latter he superior thickness of cast iron is the fact greater durability. Resistance of Cast Iron to Corrosion present time it is impossible to say what con e the most influence on durability. The rela e composition of cast iron to its resistance t has apparently never been systematically studied seems to be definitely known on the subject and Glassford, of Columbia University, con m a long research on the corrosion of cast rease in silicon is attended by increase of sus corrosion. It is the opinion of others that he most injurious element present, and though going too far to say that every high silicon iron ind every low silicon iron will be successful h evidence pointing to such a surmise. In any ‘f low silicon, low phosphorus and low carbon s proved successful to resisting corrosing wher ing higher percentages of these elements hav following analyses are given by Campbell ford of an iron that successfully resisted seri for years, while another failed rience has shown that iron having the greatest will invariably be found best to withstand the influences of corrosion. In order to btau se-grain iron, such as is believed to be most to corrosion, the following suggestions art n should be kept just as low as possible and stil castings soft enough to machine, the exact per depending upon the thickness of the casting and ter of the mold. The silicon may range from ent. for heavy work up to 2 per cent. for small ined carbon has a powerful action in closing the 1 giving a dense iron and should be just as high ble and still have the iron machineable nganese had best be kept moderately high, since it to have some beneficial effect in closing the grain hur is a powerful agent in closing the grain, but ve trouble in other directions; as a general propo- it is better to keep the sulphur low and get neces- lensity by a proper regulation of silicon and man lly, one of the best means of closing the grain of n and securing maximum density is by means of rap in the mixture. This is now common practice THE IRON AGE 1359 with i 5 castings and 18 V é cal les laid down y ndrymens ASs n tor t ling castings sista rros s fol ws s \ 1 I ss VV ite 1 ns pe l | i \ S e enc I I i se white n cast ill S 5 \\ I ict W sive gra et dens se-gra istings hr t ( steel scrap I icrwis ? \ , ‘ X ns of good qua ¥ er i act If possible, 1 x gy ag $ niu ‘ ! . w as . A Copper Self-Equalizing Expansion Joint ( I vat ' te ] 5 in I S S { ta ing I nh pipe nes VI T I ey steal water | een rought t Kk. B. Badger & Sons Compas 63 Pitts re stor la 5 | ( { cla ned r t t e elasticity t stand t nee f shape ine re ul r wl th i S The well A va rt Tt i { tor 1 Ss I nal red | er is adopte: i ts str ul xibilit ng le é ppe ith corrugations vw ! ive t ‘ I t wa found, for 1 pressures, al tual practice t inted % t tl eis always a ten I tor f r tw rrugat I ta e entire train repeated lal n shape 1 in time t Id ¢ t | | t ute the I il i rrugat ringing I f ind not ca I irt lar one tal re i S f the work, extern ngs n t rrugations wert st I e 1 ror ' I ’ the strain to the 1 rrugat and a eacl atior t light é t, tl nt Ne ; Ring lasts, it is pointed ut ulmost indefinitely Added ‘trength is given to the joint the external rings, just is the winding f a pipe spirally with wire adds to its renaeti The number of corrugations employed is dependent ipon the pressure and i¢ length of the joint. |! igh pressure and superheated steam the change in length is considerable, so that more corrugations are used. For ery low pressures, as in exhaust steam piping, two or three corrugations are sufficient for the slight alteration n length. There are also some cases where the expan sion is very little, but the vibration must be taken up and in that instance the although in most cases they are used for the purposes of adding strength for high pressure and also to stiffen the exhaust pipe against collapse joint does not need any external rings ne “2 ew 5 Electric Steel Production and Its Expansion A German Discussion from the Large In- dustry Point of View—Comparison of Acid and Basic Steels from the Heroult Furnace Richard Lindenberg Steel Remscheid-Hasten, tl W. Ejilender, manager of the Company at Heroult electric Germany, where the furnace has been developed into a splendid commercial success, has published an interesting discussion of electric steel trom the large \ssuming that the ec production industry point of vie onomic and qualitative su- periority of electric steels in the sphere of the high-grade steels, which are not made in large tonnaces, is now an established fact, the paper deals with the rise of the electric furnace in the past few years in the large steel. industry. \part from its use as a melting furnace for ferromanga ] nese, etc., it has been employed in making different special steels such as for seamless tubes, high silicon dynamo plate, els for ship construction, bridges, etc., and for 4 l. The highly developed use of excess blast and coke alloy st wal materia furna oven gas 1s now giving power for which an outlet is sought, so that the sphere of electric steel production being expanded and it becomes of interest to determine the limits for i this expansion Current Consumption Less for Large Furnaces First the wide field of the middle qualities, such as are now made in the open hearth, is considered \t first thought it might be expected that with impr d quality a certain increase in price could be obtained In Mr Eilender’s opinion, however, with the general introduction of electric steel qualities the lively competition thereby : brought about will coun =a) oft thes teract this tendency. From K the operating costs so far 50 NY e published it is evident that |__| NI Pe | the combination of con | Acie 7 7 verter and electric furnace = ce, 5 a ee is very promising, and it 5 will therefore be of great : interest to letermin¢ mel whether, possibly by the use of larger furnace | units or some special melt } ing process, such low costs Be BS De el z | can be tained for ele ; trically re material Fie ( . ( that ompetition will be , Ssoid | > possible with ordinary open heart! steel Phe results offered below bearing on this question have all bee: obtained with the Heroult furnace. There is no doubt that similar ones could be produced with other furnace sys tems, although it has not yet been fully determined wheth: large furnaces can be built in these systems that will prop erly meet the operating conditions necessary for large: outputs. In Figs. t and 2 are given curves of current consumption, based on low-carbon high-grade material and which can lay claim t From the curve in Fig. 2 reasonably gene ral applicati n given for basic material and liquid charges it is readily seen how the current depends on the size of the marked with the small ton are necessary nsumption furnace The drop is most furnace units, while 400 kw. hr. per with the one-ton furnace, a 6 to 7-ton furnace requires only about 200 kw. hr., and with a 29-ton furnace this can be reduced with certainty to 170 kw. hr. The curve is intentionally placed rather high, so as to in- clude those cases in which, in order to meet special require- ments or because of special conditions, an oxidation stage must be included in the electric furnace operation Total Cost of Refining The total refining cost must include many items as as the cost of current; for example, the cost of fluxes lime, sand, etc.), the ferro-alloys, relining mai;atenance and repairs, electrode consumption, wages, well (ore, additions of and Stahl und Eisen, April finally interest and depreciation. These s brought together in Table 1. Table 1.—Total refining « 5-ton 10-ton Basic Acid Basic Acid Bas Fluxes . .--$0.16 $0.09 $0.16 $0.08 $0.15 $ Ferromanganese . 0.22 0.26 0.22 0.26 0.2 Ferrosilicon ..... 0.25 0.08 0.26 0.08 0.25 Lining costs ..... 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.0 Upkee and repairs 0.24 0.06 0.21 0.05 Electrode consum] tion SS a ee 0.34 0.28 0.31 0.24 0.2 Current consump t el 1.07 0.59 1.01 W ages ae fo a 0.11 0.08 0.09 Interest and depre ‘ . 0.14 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.07 < d Potal......$2.79 $1.79 $2.45 $1.45 $2.28 The figures given are mostly those worked tice and rest on prevailing market prices. Curt per kw. hr., which is a figure that of attainment for most steel plants. T! heat is taken as 2% to 2% at 0.5905c. Casy hours. Three-phas are considered, and in the installation cost of must be included transformers, cables and sw lable 2 gives details regarding the kilowatts n¢ Table Current and size of furna Size of turnace Kil b OOM a cee tie steccncececheasebuaenten 300 COM, be cc onaccwawe sad econ eSematiannee 400 ¢ ROM ckweseescasd vena 4 Cae eae 500 7 COM. scctocectuvacecuncisene eens 750 t g iV ton ce eces eww meted a 1000 t 15 ton ean a Te ah Da Sie sa erie ey ate ‘U tor ictvestebee cea. 25 ton 3000 t There is much discussion regarding the possibilit building the Heroult furnace to take three-phase It may be mentioned that there is not the slightes why three-phase current should not be used I-ton furnace. Today there is a 2-ton three-phas in operation at one plant, a 3 a whole series of 5-ton furnace at ar 3-ton to 7-ton furnaces undet ion. The regularity of operation of such furt proved to be excellent. A diagram taken on a 3-t showed an almost straight current consumption the slag was completely fluid. From Table 1 it he cost of refining blown basic Bessemer material is $ per ton for the 5-ton furnace, which decreases to $: { 20-ton furnace. This must be added t finished basic Bessemer steel, in order to get nished electric steel; in other words the cost ferromanganese, etc., must from the refining costs given above in order ing and adding amount of difference between basic Bessemer an steel The cost of deoxidizing, etc... terial, if assumed to be $0.36 per ton, will not be , CSS basic » that after subtraction the difference between steels is from $2.43 to $1.79. It must still be ret that this includes current, etc., for an oxidati which in most cases is unnecessary. For many p! 1 especially those working minette ores, $1.79 15 al low the difference between basic Bessemer and « steel Effect of Process on Structure The results will be much better current consumption curves and refining costs steel are considered: but first something should about the process itself. The investigation of the of the tool steels made at Remscheid led Director to the conviction that a large amount of the steel have the structure required for first-class tool st withstanding the very thorough chemical purity orous about by working with a white final slag. He was | seen to be this conviction by means of a special method of testims which he developed at Remscheid. From each heat ' 550 xX notched test pieces about 30 x 15 x 80 mm. (1.18 » 1360 THE IRON AGE 1361 roken in a special testing machine, in the seen from the curves for current consumpti lition. The hardening temperatures are 750 ning costs that tl id material gives much bett / n x. and 850 deg. C. The machine is so built than the basi For ton furnace the refinin : ‘ing transverse load can be read directly on a $1.79 per ton, which decreases to $1.25 f ' ght, and with most heats the results ar nace tf the a int $0.35 is subtracte wh a « and 1000 kg. The fractures of the tests plained above is needed 1 ni e basic Bess« two temperatures show a well-marked dis then the difference in cost between bas ones n the hardened skin and the unhardened — electric steel is from $1.45 to $0.80 n the is not seen in the third test, which shows yures it is confidently \intained that blown bas fracture an unsightly overheated grain, and xs r metal refined in the electric furnace will ter cracks. The sudden drop in the test ri roduce than the present one rth steel in fully so this. In only a few cases does the char ent Sh thee Goreeem ‘eter a i. wieud cen tale | rst two persist in the third, where the grain is st be a ed ' enarate items given in 7 yre still shows good tenacity. The result is 1 are examined the first « ifocence ta 2 . ndingly higher, being about 2000 kg., so that thy st of ferrosilicos ahs geld conditions it 1s possible to obtain material hearth it is not necessary ¢ n in th , ifficient tenacity after hardening from 850 ferrosilicon. it no taker rectly from the lining by e | ui ' ‘ 1mmtena ind ncluded after numerous observations made repair sts due to the short le ' ft While long practice that the method of melting is 214 to 214 hours are neces sic hours nsure good structue and physical properties tt the most is enough fo: tee] This al ( ses the ed steel, as well as the proper heat trea ler electrod ns hnwe 4 o elas ed steel. It would take us too far to investi the greatly reduced current consumptio: . resent liner theories in detail, but his conclusion is re not theoretical but are taken mostly ra . rest; that the qualitative properties of a tests. among others thos tair teel works et nd first of all on the atomic concentration— jntendent. Schmit wine the ‘leat so a yf the molecules in the liquid condition Singis so the Enis Cen