The Iron Age 1893-01-19: Vol 51

The Telephotos. «C. V. Boughton of the Buffalo, N. Y., Seal & Press Company, has invented a strange device called the telephotos. It is for the purpose of signaling long distances with incandescent light. The | invention is an adaptation of electric lights to the Morse alphabet. There is first a long horizontal box in which are ranged in a single row i06 incandescent THE IRON AGE THURSDAY JANUARY 19, 1898. The Coal Storage Plant at South Plainfield. | distinguished oaly by their varying lengths. |On this plan the period would re |quire 144 lights, but two red lights have been substituted in order to save |space. By a simple device the posi tion of the keyboard is shifted so that in pressing a key, not the letter which ordinarily responds to that key, but a letter one or more intervals further down the alphabet, appears. This is to aid in sending cipher dispatches. The invention is in- tended primarily for marine signaling, and | With Supplement | Some years since the question of storing large quantities of coal forced itself upon the attention of railroad companies and other large consumers. This was primarily THE COA ismps. The narrow box is open on one side, and each lamp when lighted appears as a bright bull’s eye in the system of lights. There is then a keyboard that contains the alphabet, the numerals, the character ‘‘&”* and the period. By press- ing a button the lights flash in dots and cashes, easily read by an operator. Should the observer not be an operator the letters are written slowly enough to allow him to copy them, and transcribe by means of a Morse alphabet. Fora dot two lights are used, fora dash ora s»ace there are 10. The letter ‘‘], ” therefore, which is asingle dash, is made up of 10 lights, which at a distance appear to be continuous. The letter ‘‘n” takes 15 lights, and the cipher 20. Tasre are the three dash characters, | Fig. 2.—The Reloader in C-ntral Position. L STORAGE PLANT AT SOUTH PLAINFIELD. is good for many miles in ordinary weather. made necessary by the desire of those com- The line of lights isto be run up the mast, panies not coal producers to be in a cer- From the roof ofa building at Buffalo sig-| tain sense practically independent of the nals have been read 10 miles distant. Tais market and of strikes in the coal regions, was done without lenses to throw the rays and also to enable them to handle the coal of light forward horizontally, which wou'd to the best advantage as far as cost of greatly increase their power. The inven-| transportation wai concerned. The idea tion has been patented in eight countries, | has grown rapidly, and we now find that and a perfected specimen wi!! b? exhibited large consumers have provided themselves on board the warsnip ‘‘Chicazo,” which will| with plants for the storing of coal, having be at the World’s Fair. Besides naval tel-| in some cases capacity sufficient to enable egraphy, the telephotos is adaptable to the | them to tide over a high market, while at signaling necessary in the coast survey, | the same time deriving all the benefits to where triangulation on land is employed, | be obtained from low prices and also from and to army signaling. A small model of|low freights. Several methods were a wagon to beusedio the army has been| adopted tor accomplishing this, one of made. The lights cin be easily read four | the simplest in cost of installation and miles in the daytime. cost of maintenance and operating ex- F 118 penses being that devised by James M. Dodge, and built by the Dodge Coal Stor- age Company of Philadelphia. We have the privilege this week of illustrating very completely by drawings and engravings made from photographs the plant erected by this company for the Lehigh Valley Coal Company on the line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, at South Plainfield, N. J. In this method there is no manual labor whatever required in bandling the coal, the only work required of the attendants being to care for the machinery doing the work. The single exception to this is found in the case of certain forms of coal cars which will not completely empty themselves, and on which it therefore be- comes necessary to employ men to get the coal out of the corners. The System in General, The several cars constituting a coal train are brought one by one over pockets formed in the track and into which their load is dumped. From these pockets endless conveyors take the coal along troughs up one of the trusses placed at the angle of repose of the coal and there deposit it. When necessary an empty train is brought into position with its cars under the shute from a hopper capable of receiving several tons of coal and into which the coal is dumped by means of a reloading endless chain arranged to sweep the base of either one of two adjoining piles of coal. It will thus be seen that the coal is delivered, carried to one of the piles alongside ot the track and then re- loaded whenever required solely with the aid of machinery. The general arrangement of this plant is shown in the map, Fig. 5. Extending centrally are five lines of track, provided at each end, but not shown in the draw- ing, with the necessary switches for shift- ing from one track to the other. On the north side of the track are six floors, each having a diameter of 256 feet and capable of receiving 30,000 tons of coal each. On the south side of the track are four floors, each having a diameter of 226 feet and a capacity of 20,000 tons. There are also two floors of 204 feet in diameter and 15,000 tons capacity, and two of 180 feet diameter and 10,000 tons capacity. These piles are arranged to be worked in pairs, with inde pendent loading apparatus, but with a common reloading device which takes coal from either pile according to circumstances. But one set of machinery, arranged alongside of the track and equidis- tant from the piles, as indicated in the map, provides power for both loaders and trimmers, as they are termed, and also fur the reloader. Each floor or pile is spanned by two trusses pixced as shown in the piles marked A and D, in Fig. 5. These trusses are built as shown in the engraving on the inset page and in Fig. 3, the angle formed by the two trusses corresponding with the angle of rep: se of the pile of coal to be deposit'd beneath them, and the trusses being beld in position by guy ropes arranged as shown in the heavy, broken lines on the msp and also faintly in the perspective views. The coal deposited in the recep'acle veneath the track is taken up the tru s by means of an endless chain arrangeme:t and deposited on the pile. Pivoted mdway bi tween each pair of piles is the reloading device, which is a double bow girder arranged so as to sweep one pile or the otber, one end being piv- oted, as shown in the map and in Fig 4 It will be observed that the system works on what is known as the flowing princi ple, the coal in no case, either in loading or unloading, being permitted to drop more than a few ivches at a time. How this is accomplished during the unloading and filling «f ove of the floors will be ex plaice i further on. THE IRON AGE. U nloading. Since there are six floors on one side of the track and eight floors on the other side Fig. 3.—The Reloader January 19, 1893 joining each power station 1s a receiving hopper, 25 feet long and 10 feet wide, into which the coal from the cars is dumped. Placed at convenient distances in Working Position. Fig. 4.—The Pivoted End of Reloader. THE COAL STORAGE and operating machinery for each pair, there are, as indicated in the map, seven separate and independent plants providing the necessary power. On the track ad PLANT AT SOUTH PLAINFIELD. between the tracks, and ‘also operated by the power stations nearest to which they are located, are capstdns provided for moving the loaded and empty cars into January 19, 1893 THE IRON AGE. IM HI HAN x ) 30,000 Tons } 4 WSs x \We /A\ f i s 30,000 Ton Zs oe Pe a Ps > \ 30,000 Tor as 4 Fi Pd an S _— “cg -~< \Z i 30,000 Tons ae Pe a f F YQ0 T » N. ™ >< l J ‘ . ‘ f Pie 256 i me ® 56 30:000 Tong ™, a ~~ y ™, Dia 118" ANCHOR ANCHOR .~« x 7 —- —~ : St ; s 240 ; _ } 450. Ena Fig. 5. PLAINFIELD. STORAGE PLANT AT SOUTH COAL OF MAP 120 position for unloading and loading. We may add that these capstans are the only part of the machinery which moves contin- ually, all the other devices being arranged so as to stop when not doing any work. The coal dumped into the receiving hopper is taken by the trimmer and conveyed by a trough extending along the straight or bot- tom chord of one of the trusses, as shown in Fig. 6. There is a slide in the shute leading from the receptacle to the trim- mer in order to regulate the flow, this ar- rangement being possible, as the railroad tracks are placed about 6 feet above the general floor level. At the foot of the truss, as shown in Fig. 6, is a guiding pulley arranged to hold the chain down into the trough. This guide pulley is mounted in a yielding frame, so that in case foreign material or large lumps should be brought along by the conveyor there would be no damage done, as the guide wheel would be lifted and thereby per- mit the passage of what would other- wise be an obstruction. The trough extending up the shear leg, a cross section of which is shown in Fig. 7, con- sists of two inclined sides and a movable bottom, the latter being 18 inches wide. This bottom is one of the most important characteristics of the entire outfit, since it permits of the coal being almost laid directly on top of the pile, and of being extended as the pile grows, so that at no time between the beginning and the filling of the pile is the coal permitted to fall more than a few inches. This bottom consists of a steel ribbon, No. 14 gauge, made in lengths, with a depressed lap joint. and at its lower end wound on a four foot drum. To the upper end of the ribbon is attached a 4-inch rope, which passes over a sheave at the top of the truss, and thence back to the operating drum in the power house. By this means the ribbon can be extended up the trough as the pile grows. In the trough thus formed move blades or flights of such form as to fitinthe trough. These flights or scrapers measure 8 x 24 inches, and are spaced 16 inches apart or at every second link of what is known as the 3-inch Dodge chain. On the upper side on each side of the chain there are provided wearing shoes to take the wear during the return movement, which is accomplished in a suitable guide- way formed over the truss, as shown in the perspective views, this guide being made of two angle irons supported by braces. The speed of this part of the device is 200 feet per minute. Reloading. The reloader is shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 8 and 9. It consists essentially of a double- bow girder, one end of which is pivoted, as shown in Figs. 4, 8 and 9, midway be- tween each pair of piles and at the foot of an incline Jeading to the top of the hopper building. This reloader is swung so as to be brought in contact with either of the two piles it is intended to serve by means of two 1-inch wire ropes, which are secured at one end to a set of drums in the power house and then run out over guiding wheels, as shown in Fig. 8, to a distance equal to about one third from the foot or pivoted end of the reloader. They then pass on a circular rail in either direction, and are anchored at the extreme swing of the reloader. It is apparent that by wind- ing up one of these ropes and playing out the other the reloader can be swung in either direction desired. Passing around the reloader, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, and up the incline, as shown in Fig, 4, is an endless chain pro- vided with scrapers 8 x 20 inches, and spaced 2 feet apart. Both the rope oper- ating the reloader and the chain are oper- ated from the platform shown in Fig. 4. The reloader is supported at every 30 feet by rails placed concentrically, the pivot | upon which the reloader swings being the | THE IRON AGE. January 19, 1893 center of the circle. On each of the rails rest two chilled rollers 10 inches in diam- eter and 4 inches face, this extreme width of face being designed to overcome any irregularity in the track. the reloader is a horizontally placed apron extending 194 inches beyond the side of the reloader. The flights, being 20 inches in length, reach over this apron \ oo“ a “tp mS yr At each side of | troughs on the incline coal from either pile may be handled. The hopper is shown in side section and elevation in Fig. 9. The shute leading from the hopper is provided with an extension piece, the ob- ject of which is to permit the loading of | coal into cars standing on either the first ‘or second tracks. The upper part of the | shute is furnished with a screen in order Fig %7.—Cross Section of Trimmer Trough THE COAL STORAGE and are intended to clear the way. The reloader is shown in operation in Fig. 3. It will be observed that the flights carried by the chain as they pass the foot of the coal pile remove the coal, conveying it to the foot of the incline, up which it passes, as shown in Fig. 4, and is delivered into the hopper, the chain then passing down the other trough of the incline. By means of this arrangement and the provision of two PLANT AT SOUTH PLAINFIELD. to screen the coal passing through. The screenings are conveyed by a shute to the lower part of the building, from whence they can be elevated and delivered into cars and removed. Power. In each station is provided a suitable engine driving a shaft placed parallel with the railroad tracks and from which all the power necessary for all the operations of Janvary 19, 1893 the several devices is obtained. A bevel gear on this shaft, gearing with a similar gear on a shaft extending out under the railroad tracks, provides the power for turning the capstans. The engine is a 100 horse-power Buckeye, 12 x 16, single revolutions per minute. cylinder, 260 THE IRON AGE. | tion coupling permits of the disengaging of either of these gears. Power for operat- ing the reloader is taken from this shaft | to a 48 inch sprocket wheel placed on top |of the hopper house, as shown in Fig. 4. | Between the shaft and this sprocket wheel | suitable provision is introduced for revers- 121 each reloader or trimmer, the cost not to exceed, when the plant was worked to its full capacity, 6 cents per ton for unload- ing and reloading, this 6 cents also to cover cost of maintenance. When run to the best advantage this figure has been con- ‘siderably reduced, since when the ca rs can Fig. 8.—Sectional Plan and Elevation of Pivoted End of Reloader. THE The main shaft travels at 70 revolutions per minute. At each end of the main shaft is placed a bevel pinion 16 inches in diameter and driving a gear 60 inches in diameter, on a shaft of which is mounted a 40-inch sprocket wheel arranged so that the trimmer chain passes over it in its passage to and around the truss. A fric- COAL Fig. 9.—Sectional Elevation of Hopper House STORAGE PLANT AT SOUTH ing the direction of travel of the chain. Drums carrying the wire ropes intended for shifting the reloader are also driven from this shaft. Summary. The builders of this plant guaranteed to handle 2 net tons of coal per minute with be handled without delay, and when the operation of unloading can be carried on at one pile from an unlimited supply of cars, and when the operation of reloading can be carried on at another pile also with an unlimited supply of empty cars, the cost has frequently been reduced to from 8 to 4 cents per ton for both operations. The average cost of both operations has been considerably less than the guar- jantee of 6 cents per ton. Independent of the cheapness with which the coal can be hand!ed comes in the fact that there is a minimum breakage, the coal only being ipermitted to drop in three cases—once PLAINFIELD. from the loaded car into shute leading to the trimmer, then the few inches from the end of the trimmer trough, and then from the hopper house into the empty car. Another advantage arises from the fact that the plant, taken as a whole, can be placed on ground of practically no value and in almost any desired location, the 122 only requisite being that it shall be com- paratively level. The original plan of this plant called for 60 trimmers having a total capacity of about 1,200,000 tons, and it is only a ques- tion of time when the original ideas will be carried out. So far the system has worked without hitch of any kind and without any breaks to machinery, and, being located midway between the mines and tidewater, has permitted the company to tide over unfavorable markets, and wait for those when better prices could be realized. —_——_ The Aluminum Decision. An entry was made in the United States Circuit Court at Cleveland on the 11th in one of the most important patent cases ever fought in the United States. The action was that of the Pittsburgh Reduction Company of Pittsburgh against the Cowles Electric Smelting & Aluminum Com- pany. The decree was for the complain- ant, the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, declaring the validity of the Hall patent and that the Cowles Company had been infringing that patent. The Pittsburgh concern had for some years been manufacturing and selling what is known as pure aluminum. A year or two ago the Cowles Company began its manufacture and sale and a patent in- fringement suit was begun, the Pittsburgh Company insisting that the Lockport Company was making use of its process. Several sensational affidavits were filed, one on the part of the Pittsburgh Company, telling how it had sent a man into the Lockport works, and how he discovered that it was the Hall process and no other that the Cowles people were using. He swore that the Cowles concern had its es- tablishment barricaded like a fortress. Two or three months ago the case was heard in Cincinnati, before Judges A. J. Ricks and William H. Taft, on exhibits, affidavits and arguments of counsel. On the 11th the entry of the finding of the court was made and on or before the 20th inst. Judge Taft will file a written and lengthy opinion. During the pendency of the suit both concerns manufactured the pure aluminum and sold it at an agreed price, approved by the court. The testimony on record amounts to something over 2000 pages, the suit hav- ing been first brought in February, 1891, in the United States Circuit Court, by praying for a preliminaryinjunction. The chief experts on the side of the Pittsburgh Reduction Company were: Prof. John W. Langley of the Case School of Applied Sciences ; Prof. Chas. F. Chandler of Columbia College ; Dr. R, W. Raymond, secretary of the American Institute of Min ing Engineers, and Chas. M. Hall, the in- ventor. The attorneys for the Pittsburgh Reduction Company were: George H. Christie and Thomas W. Bakewell of Pittsburgh, to whom, together with the witnesses, much credit is due for the suc cessful issue of the suit. As indicative of the importance of the issues involved, it is stated that the electrolytic process of the Pittsburgh Reduction Company is now the only process used either in this country or in Europe for smelting pure aluminum and for the manufacture of the alloy. Before the introduction of modern methods the price was $8 to $15 per pound for pure aluminum, but by means of the Hall process, used and owned by the Pitts- burgh Reduction Company, the selling price has been cut down to 50 cénts to 65 cents a pound, which, in comparison with other metals, is about as cheap as copper, bulk for bulk, and cheaper than nickel or tin. The growth of this indus- try has been very rapid, new uses being found for the metal every day. It is urged THE IRON AGE. that it is only a matter of a short time when it will take avery prominent posi- tion in the metal world. The Heroult process and the Hall proc- ess are identical. The former has works at Neuhausen, near Schaffhausen, on the Rhine. Heroult and Hall both applied for patents in the United States Patent Office at about the same time, in 1886, and after an interference suit lasting a year Hall was adjudged a prior inventor. The same question was one of the issues in the pres ent suit, and was also decided in favor of Hall. In the testimony of Professor Lang- ley he says that the Cowles people have ‘* apparently ransacked all the patent liter- ature of the world to find something that would anticipate the Hall invention.’’ The Hall process primarily consists of dissolving the ore of aluminum in the form of an oxide in a bath of fluoride of alu- minum, together with the fluoride of some other metal more electro-positive than aluminum, and then precipitating the metallic aluminum by electrolysis at the positive pole. In this way a continuous operation is carried on. The ore is shov- eled in the pots at the top, while the pure metal is drawn off at the bottom, if need be, or ladled out. Therefore the charging or discharging of the materials does not interrupt the action of the process. The metal itself has a purity that has thus far been unattained by any other methods. It is reported that the Cowles Company will carry the case to the higher court. I Money in the Country. As compared with the figures for Janu- ary 1, 1892, the Treasury statement of the amount of money coined and issued at present outstanding shows a marked de. crease in the amount of gold coin and bull- ion. Although gold coin has gone into circulation to the extent of only about $5,000,000, the Treasury holds almost $40,000,000 less than a year ago. As ‘against this there is a reduction of $31,- 000,000 in gold certificates outstanding, so that the net loss of gold to the Treasury is reduced by this amount. The absorp- tion of money by the public in other ways has been mainly satisfied by Treasury notes, in which there is an increase of $46,750,000, and subsidiary silver, in which there is an increase of $4,500,000, the chief decrease besides thatin gold cer- tificates being in United States notes— $2,750,000—and currency certificates, a little over $2,000,000. The following table shows the changes in detail: In Circulation January 1. 1893. In thou- sands $412,970 1892. In thou- sands. $407,999 2,326 Changes. In thou- sands. Gold coin .. $4,971 Standard sil- ver dollars. Subsidiary silver “a Gold certifi- GRVSB..0 2.20% Silver certiti- cates... ~— Treasury notes Act July 14, 1890... or United States notes Currency cer- tificates..... National Bank ee Inc.. 62,822 Inc.. 62,776 4,550 31,012 1,217 Inc.. 117,093 148,106 320,817 Dec.. 322,085 Inc.. 122,039 75,296 333,767 9,265 Inc.. 46,7438 330,933 Dec.. 2,833 7,100 Dec.. 2,165 168,36 | 168,427 Dec.. 66 Totals ... $1,610,683 $1,588,781 Inc.. $21,902 The Treasury holds nearly 6,000,000 standard silver dollars more than at the beginning of last year, nearly $3,000,000 more United States notes and over $1, 250,- 000 more national bank notes. Its hold- ings of silver bullion are $42,750,000 more than last year. On the other hand, besides | the decrease of nearly $40,000,000 in gold coin already mentioned, there is a decrease | of $3,250,000 in subsidiary silver, which ‘has gone into circulation. The decrease January 19, 1893 in gold bullion is very small, being only $500,000. Detailed statement follows : 1893. In thou- sands. $156,662 355,054 1892. In thou- sands. $196,634 349,217 13,789 2,031 12,913 Changes, In thou- sands. Dec... $39,971 5,836 3,217 674 2,833 1,391 Gold coin..... Standard sil- ver dollars. Subsidiary Inc.. 10,571 2,705 15,747 6,043 Dec.. Treasury notes... .» United States oo National bank notes. Total .... Gold bullion. Silver bullion Inc.. $546,784 $1,697 96,743 $579,236 82.212 53,969 $715,418 Total.... $725,225 The Treasury holdings in gold coin and bullion are $236,359,802 in all. Deduct- ing from this amount $117,093, 139 ia gold certificates outstanding, the amount of free gold in the Treasury is $121,266,663. As against this are outstanding United State. notes $330,933,540, and Treasury notes $122,039,656; in all $452,973,196, the gold reserve thus being about 26.7 per cent. On January 1, 1892, the amount of free gold in the Treasury was $130,740,- 631, against which was outstanding $409,- 063,402 of notes, the reserve thus being 81.9 per cent. On January 1, 1891, the amount of free gold was $148,972, 935, and outstanding notes $370,771,516, the re- serve being 40.1 per cent. er Freights on Iron. A circular issued on the 13th inst. by Commissioner Blanchard of the Central Traffic Association, Chicago, announces the adoption of the following resolutions by the freight officers of the interested roads : Resolved, That the rates which have been or may be hereafter authorized to apply on pig iron be limited so as to cover only pig iron, mill cinder and scale, in carloads Resolved, That rates be provided for iron or steel billets in carloads, not less than 12 gross tons, on the basis of not less than 35 cents per ton to Chicago higher than rates on pig iron to same point. Resolved, That ferromanganese, manganese ore and spiegeleisen be not included in the list of articles taking billet rates, but take rates as per official classification. Resolved, That all of the above changes take effect on Central Traffic Association traffic on February 1, 1893, and on joint com- mittee traffic as soon as the concurrence of the trunk lines can be obtained thereto. Resolved, That the question of an advance in rates on cast-iron pipe be taken up with the Chicago & Ohio River Trafiic Association and that until such an advance is arranged for cast-iron pipe may eontinue to be taken at the present rates per net ton. Resolved, That the Chicago & Ohio River Traffic Association be requested to advance the rates on billets, &c., from Ohio River points to Chicago & Ohio River Traffic Asso- ciation territory in conformity with the ad- }| vance agreed to this day from Central Traffic Association points. Resolved, That all local committees be re- quested to advance their rates on billets, &c., in conformity with the advance agreed to to- day. 7 ec A bell weighing 600 pounds and de- sigoed as a gift from the Seventh Regi- ment, N. G., 8. N. Y., tothe United States Cruiser ‘* New York,” is being manufact- ured at the bell foundry of Clinton H. Meneeley, Troy, N. Y. The bell will be 31 inches in diameter at the mouth and cost $2000. An unusually large amount of silver will enter into its composition, which will be silver, copper and tin from American mines—the first large bell of American metals ever produced in this country. The bell will be magnificently engraved with elaborate designs, a coat of arms and scenes appropriate to the service to which it will be put. An inscription will be placed on the rim, and the whole will be polished like a mirror. January 19, 1893 The Relations of Chemistry to Foundry Practice.—1.* BY CLEMENS JONES, ME., EASTON, PA. Chemical analysis has for its objects the detection and estimation of the constituent parts of material substances. That it pro- ceeds upon an original separation of com- pound substances into the elementary substances composing them, and upon a positive identification of these, is an infer- ence readily derived. This process began in an original way, and then became se- lective. The metals were early discovered to be elementary. As far as our present purpose is concerned, from the nucleus of metals—gold, silver, copper and iron— sprung the long list of elements we now have—64. In later years this has been still further increased. The pro- longed, arduous work that established the identity of a single element would make a history ofexperiments. It would likewise be a history of the patience, skill and de votion to science of a class of men—theo- rists—who spent their lives in a tireless search after truth, and in its demonstration. From the nature of things, chemistry is an experimental science. An experiment has been aptly defined as a question addressed to nature. Chemistry demonstrated by just such inquiries the broad theorem that matter is indestructible. So grand a principle as this applied to all manner of substances—solid, liquid and gaseous. But this principle demanded that the chemical action of one substance upon an- other should be accompanied by a change of state, in which the weight of the sub- stance changed should remain unaltered. Therefore, the quantity of the substance changed could be accurately determined, because the existence of fixed laws gov erned every change. Quantitative analysis became a possibility. By it a substance in whatever state of change or combina- tion could be identified, extracted, ex- actly weighed ana then resolved into its former condition without loss. Water could be split up into its component gases —hydrogen and oxygen. These gases could be separated, weighed, found to exist in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen to one part of oxygen, reunited, ‘chemically combined by a spark and then give precisely the weight of water first taken, and possessing all of its orig- inal properties. All material substances, whether in the earth, the sea or the air, could be isolated and their quantities de- termined with an unfailing accuracy. The proofs surround us. The products of a hundred industries; the forces at work in operating them—iron anid copper; heat, power and light. Indeed, in this our day we are aware that the truths of chemistry and its great principle, developed by means so simple as analysis, expand with the growth of knowledge, and extend from the earth to the limits of the celestial system. Certain of the elements so far found in the earth have been discovered in the sun, and even in the remote planets. How much do we owe to this mistress of our civilization—the benefactress of art, philosophy and religion ? The elements, for which we are thus in- debted to the researches of chemistry are accordingly the total number of separate indivisible substances found to have entered into the composition of every known body. Acompound body may con- sist of only two elements, as water, for in- stance, or it may contain more, as sugar, composed of three elements, hydrogen, oxygen, and the third, carbon, or lime- stone, oxygen, carbon and calcium. Con- sider that the same principle of chemical * An address before the Foundrymen’s Asso- ciation of Philadelphia. THE IRON AGE. constituency holds good for every material body in the organic or inorganic king- doms. Sugar can be artificially made. Limestone is found to be a proportionate relation of oxygen, carbon and calcium. These elements, then, brought together in the same association produce limestone, or calcium carbonate, which artificial prod uct has properties similar to the naturally occurring substance. The list of elements which concerns the limits of tbis discus sion is as follows: Iron, carbon, silicon, phosphorus, manganese, sulphur, alu- minum, arsenic, titanium, copper, calcium, magnesium, and allusion will be made to a few of the more rarely occurring ele ments—nickel, chromium, tungsten, van- adium and uranium. Iron.—Chemically pure iron—that is, iron as pure as it can be made—is silver- white in color, soft, ductile, malleable, and rapidly attacked by oxygen. It forms two principal oxides—ferrous oxide, or iron protoxide, of which the salts are green in color, and ferric oxide, or iron sesquioxide, of which the salts are yellow. There is a black oxide also, which is a combination of these two oxides. When oxidation of metallic iron takes place rust is formed. There are two kinds of rust. One is yellowish brown, inclining toa red- dish hue ; the other is black and tends to form the magnetic oxide. In impure iron the agency of moisture, even in moder- ately dry air, facilitates this rusting ac- tion. The reason of this is that iron de- composes water, which, as you are aware, is composed of the two gases hydrogen and oxygen. The strong attraction or affinity of iron for oxygen splits up the water into its elements; the oxide of iron, or rust, is formed, and hydrogen is liber- ated. A ciean nail placed in a tumbler of water will show this reaction in a few minutes, Iron may be obtained in a state of purity by reducing the oxide in a current of hydrogen. That is, the oxide is heated to facilitate the action, while a current of pure hydrogen gas is passed over it. Aided by the heat, the hydrogen seizes upon the oxygen, metallic iron is left be hind, with water as a by-product. Under these conditions it is in a finely divided | state, and must be kept from contact with the air, as it is so eager for oxygen that the air sets fire to it, a brilliant flash takes place, and the black magnetic oxide is formed. This phenomenon is familiar about the runners of a blast furnace, or in filling a ladle from a cupola, and fre- quently on pouring into a mold. The tiny sparks that fly about like little meteors are minute detached particles of iron thrown into the air, which are burned by the oxygen of the air. Iron is not found in the native state on the earth. It is found in meteorites, those peculiar structures which fall to the earth from masses revolving through space, when they pass through the field of the earth’s attraction. Nickel 1s always conspicuously associated with it. In some places, notably Greenland, these masses of meteoric iron are of great size. From the readiness with which it is oxidized, dissolved and re- duced, iron forms a great variety of com pounds or salts with other chemical re- agents. It is indispensable in the arts, in medicine and in the vegetable world. Carbon.—Carbon is one of the most re- markable elements which we will discuss As a solid, it occurs in three distinct forms, bearing no resemblance whatever to each other in outward appearance or pbysical properties. Color, specific grav- ity, hardness,crystalline character, all differ to such an extent as to have no appar ent relations. The first form is the dia- mond. This, the most valuable and beau. tiful gem in the mineral kingdom, is pure carbon. It is the hardest of all known bodies; is employed for cutting glass, and will scratch the hardest substance. It can Only be cut by means of its own dust, 123 and then it has a high refractive power, a ray of light causing it to gleam with brill- iant luster. When burned in oxygen it is found to consist entirely of carbon. The second form of carbon is graphite or plumbago. This is greasy to the touch, so soft that it can be cut by the finger nail, and is very light. Drawn across paper it leaves a black mark, and is hence made into lead pencils. It is also used for lubri- cating machine bearings and to protect the surface of coarse grains of gunpowder. Pig iron on cooling throws off flakes of graphite, the so called ‘* kish.” The third form of carbon is charcoal. Its purest form is lampblack. When animal or vegetable matter is heated to redness in a closed vessel charcoal is produced. Char- coal catbon also exists as coal,coke and ani- mal charcoal. It is still lighter than either of the two foregoing forms of carbon, and, unlike them, does not crystallize. It has a high absorbing power, which is utilized for the purpose of refining raw sugar, and is valuable as a disinfectant. The wide disparity between these three forms of carbon is evident from the description. Yet on combustion with oxygen each of these yield the same weight of the same substance, namely, carbon. That is, 12 parts by weight of each of these substances yield 44 parts by weight of the resulting compound of carbon with oxygen, carbon dioxide, or, as commonly known, carbonic acid. This metalloid, as we shall see, has a deportment with iron which cannot be supplied to metallurgy by any other ele- ment. Its rank in the physical world, animal and vegetable, is so vital that neither plant nor man could exist without it. We burn it in our stoves to get phys- ical heat, and consume it in our bodies to supply the waste of tissue. For the pur- poses of the metallurgy of iron we win carbon from the earth, where its geological position prcclaims it to have been buried for ages. Silicon. —Silicon is the next element to be considered. After oxygen, silicon is the most abundant element in nature. It has never been discovered in the free or native state, but by means of a pow- erful electric arc current it has been re- duced from its oxide Heat more intense than the blast furnace gives, aided by the electrolytic action of the current in the presence of powerful reducing agents, is required to do this. Silicon may be crys- talline or amorphous. In nature it occurs as the oxide, or silica, as in quartz, which is crystalline, or as flint, which is dense and hard and sometimes black in color. Both varieties are sometimes hard enough to scratch glass. Silica is a predominant constituent of all rocks; hence it is found in all kinds of ores, either as silica com- pounds or as an impurity. In the mate- rials out of which iron is made—ores, fuel and limestone—it is the largest impurity. The slag which comes from the furnace in the manufacture of iron is therefore a com- pound of silica; that is, it is a silicate. In consequence of the heat and intense re- ducing power and volume of the blast fur- nace small quantities of silicon are pro- duced, which, in contact with melted iron, combine with it and make a more fusible alloy. Phosphorus —As an element, this met- alloid enters into the composition of many important bodies. It has been found wherever organic life exists. The oldest rock formations also contain it, usually as- sociated with iron. Soil, which is produced by the disinte- gration of rocks, derives in turn its phos- phorus from them. Water, air, and the sun decompose even granite rocks, by the familiar action known as ‘* weathering.” Plants, and hence their seeds, take up the phosphorus from the soil, and by this process are said to impoverish it. Animals and man absorb from vegetable matter the phosphorus which enters into the com- 124 position of their tissues and bones. Phos- phorus does not cccur in a free state in nature, but in combination with oxygen and calcium. As the former, which is called phosphoric acid or the pentoxide, we thus see that it existed first in the rocks, then by the economy of nature in the soil. Entering the plants, on which animal life subsists, itis transformed into bones, &c., by uniting with calcium oxide, or lime; on burning these it is obtained as calcium phosphate, or phosphate of lime. We are aware that soils are enriched by the use of artificial, and naturally occur ring phosphates. Phosphorus is a soft, yellowish, semi-transparent, waxy solid It absorbs oxygen rapidly, and hence is easily inflammable on exposure to the air. It burns to phosphoric acid, or the pent oxide. It is largely used to make a com- position for friction matches, and gives to them the ‘* phosphorescence” visible in the dark and a disagreeable suffo- cating odor, caused by slow oxida- tion. Phosphorus is the most _per- sistent element in its association with iron. Apatite and phosphorite are two of its principal forms, which are often sepa- rated from the raw ores to purify them for metallurgical purposes. As affecting iron, the greatest ingenuity has been exercised in the control or elimination of phosphorus, since it imparts properties of varying character, which will be described further on in our discussion. Manganese.— Manganese is a true meta), reddish white in color, so brittle that it can be readily powdered and is so hard that it will scratch glass. It is slightly heavier than iron, and like that metal de- composes water at ordinary temperatures, with evolution of hydrogen. It is widely distributed in the mineral kingdom, and is found almost as diversely asiron. It is a common ingredient of iron ores. Metal- lic manganese is said to be slightly mag- netic, but owing to the difficulty of mak- ing it chemically pure, this property may be due to presence of iron in minute quan- tity. It has astrong affinity for oxygen, which it is capable of retaining to such an extent that in the arts its oxides are inval- uable. Itis not found as a native metal, owing to this susceptibility, but occurs as the various oxides, chiefly as the black dioxide or pyrolusite. This substance when heated alone gives up oxygen, and is hence largely used in making oxygen gas. Manganese forms highly colored salts, which are not only useful in making colored tints in the manufacture of glass, but in making valuable reagents for the chemical laboratory. When manganese is reduced from its ores in a blast furnace it is found to unite with carbon and sili. con in much the same manner as iron, and can be made into a product containing iron, called spiegeleisen or ‘*‘ spiegel,” ora variety called ferromanganese, which may contain 80 per cent. by weight of metallic manganese. These two alloys are used in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer process. Manganese is an extremely useful element and, es we shall see, has important effects upon the properties of cast iron. Sulphur.—Sulphur occurs as free or native sulphur in yellow finely shaped crystals, and is found abundantly in vol- canic regions. It takes fire easily and burns with a bluish flame to sulpour diox- ide, giving off offensive odors. It is used in making matches. Sulphur is plentifully distributed among the min era's and ores of the whole globe. The extent to whieh it became a:sociated with all metallic groups is indicated by the amount of sulpbur-containing ores used in smelting the rarest metals—gold, platinum, silver and a number of others. As ex- amples of this widespread distribution, copper, lead, zinc and even iron are metals smelted from sulphurous ores. To the early workers at metallurgy sulphur was a much dreaded ingredient, and even THE IRON AGE. with modern chemical knowledge and mechanical appliances it is a baneful and capricious element. To the old iron work- ers it was one of the *‘ devils.” Combined with iron, acommon and abundant min- eral called pyrite (sometimes ‘‘iron py- rites’) furnishes the material for making one of the most important acids in use— sulphuric acid, commonly called vitriol. The by-product from this process, so- called ‘purple ore,” is considered by some misinformed persons to be a suitable substance for making into pig iron. Th’s same mineral, pyrite, is found in lime- stone, in anthracite coal, in bituminous coal and hence in coke, and is termed by miners ‘‘ coal brasses”’ and ‘‘sulphur.”’ It can be easily understcod in consequence why, with ores comparatively free from sulphur, this unfaltering companion finds its way into pigiron or any kind of iron or steel produced therefrom. Together with its cecurrence with the ores of iron another mineral containing copper is also found. We will endeavor to point out to what extent sulphur is harmful in cast iron. Aluminum. —Aluminum is the next ele- ment to which our attention is directed. This metal, through the publicity given to recent modes of cheap extraction, is tolerably well known. It is asilver white soft metal, capab'e of being hammered to the thinness of gold foil or drawn into the finest wire. It is but little over twice as heavy as water and three times lighter than iron. Weight for weight it has nearly the strength of iron, but of course its increased bulk and higher cost operate against any immediate prospects it may have of superseding iron for general use. Aluminum takes a high polish like silver, but, unlike that metal, will stand long exposure to corrosive gases without being tarnished. It can be worked cold and hot, and is in use today for making surgical instruments, cooking utensils, roofing plate, and a class of like articles. In the year 1891 the United States alone produced 150,000 pounds of aluminum. lts oxide is a common ingredient of soils and clays, such as fire clay, or kaolin, marls, slates, &c. Other forms of the pure oxide of aluminum are to be found in the precious gems, ruby and sapphire, the native crystalline occurrence, and in the less valuable varieties, corundum and emery. In hardness the latter varieties stand next to the diamond. In the metal lic state, or as the oxide, aluminum forms the base of a number of useful alloys and salts. Porcelain, earthenware and glass are some of the products in which the oxide is an ingredient. This oxide, or alumina, is the only oxide of aluminum As such, it is a common constituent of nearly all iron ores, and is hence intro- duced into the blast furnace, where under certain conditions minute quantities of metallic aluminum are reduced and com- bine with the alloy of pig iron. The tenacity with which aluminum holds to its combined oxygen makes it exceedingly difficult of reduction, and recourse is had in modern times to the more intense heat and reducing power of the electric current. The exact influence of aluminum upon iron is not yet decided, and its employ- ment to advantage is still the subject of experiment. As far as possible we will treat of the facts in this connection. Arsenic.—Arsenic is a metal having pronounced peculiarities. It is brittle, of a bright grayish color, and almost as heavy as iron. It will not fuse except under cer- tain conditions, owing to its highly vola- tile character. Heated to dull redness with exclusion of air, it disappears as a perfectly colorless vapor, which has a penetrating garlic-like odor. In the me. tallic state this peculiarity serves for its detection, since the smallest quantity burned in the air takes fire with a bluish flame, and while it is thus chiefly converted January 19 1898 into the trioxide the beat is sufficient to volatilize some of the metal, which gives off its characteristic smell. It is very readily reduced to the metallic state. The trioxide, arsenious oxide, acid so-called, is a white powder, and in soluble compounds is a dreadful poison. Arsenic occurs in the free state. It occurs combined with sulphur compounds generally, and in this state is associated often with nickel in the ores of iron. Although so highly volatile and having properties opposed to the con- ditions which would bring it into the hearth of a blast furnace, yet it frequently enters pig iron and in any appreciable quantity is productive of injurious effects, From its association with sulphur, arsenic is sometimes found in fuels. I have taken crystals of arsenic trioxide from the cruci- ble lining in a blast furnace which had used materials in which arsenic was never suspected. Titanium.—Titanium is a metal strong- ly resembling tin. While it is a rare metal, its dioxide, called titanic acid, is a frequent impurity in the ores of iron, notably the megnetic ores, and accordingly the metal is usually met with combined in pig iron. In the blast furnace titanium has a tend- ency to accumulate, and is nearly always to be found in the hearth after blowing out afurnace. It is in the shape of beau- tiful copper-colored cubes and octahedrons, and is combined in this state with certain other elements. P. W. Shimer has found that titanium exists in pig iron, combined with carbon, and has succeeded in separat- ing the compound in the state of minute symmetrical crystals. Copper.—Copper is one of the metals of antiquity. The art of tempering or hardening it has been lost, although recov- ered by the newspapers at stated intervals. Its usefulness in the arts has been the means of making its properties widely known. It is perhaps familiar knowledge that it is compounded into a great variety of alloys, such as brass, bronze, bell metal, &c., all of which are hard and brittle when cooled slowly, but become soft upon being heated and then suddenly chilled. Copper is found as native or free copper, and as such, or combined with other elements, is abundant in nearly all countries. It has a deep red color, is ductile and malleable. For electrical purposes its usefulness is well known. Found in pig iron it may have been derived from any of the mate- tials used in a blast furnace. Calcium.—Calcium is a light yellowish colored metal. There are several modes of producing it, among which the electric current is employed with success. It is very oxidizable and burns with a bright flame in the air, forming calcium monox- ide or lime. Limestone is, therefore, the kind of rock having calcium as a base. Geologically, limestone occurs among the oldest rock formations, and occupies vast areas of the esrth’s crust In the great val- ley of Pennsylvania, along the banks of the Lehigh River, it lies in all possible posi- tions, and covers thousands of acres in an unbroken field. Calcium is also combined in a different state in chalk and gypsum, and is present as a mineral constituent in a majority of formations. Marble is a variety of limestone. When marble or common limestone is heated the carbonic acid with which the calcium is combined is driven off and a white infusible sub- stance called caustic or quicklime remains. This is the calcium monoxide, which com- bines with water with generation of great heat, forming calcium hydroxide, or slaked lime. Either slaked lime or lime dissolved in water have a strong affinity for carbonic acid, which they absurb rap- idly from the air, reproducing calcium carbonate. We utilize this property in mortars and cements, to which they owe the hardening or setting. As lime calcium finds a hundredfold uses. In the blast furnace and cupola it is employed as the January 19 1893 vehic'e for carrying oif uadesirable im purities. Lime and silica alone are infvsi- ble compounds. United they fuse readils, a : siz » | combining to form various silicates of lime, &c., and in addition to this they open up to the action of the gascs the finer particles that would otherwise be | deleterious to the final products. Calcium | distinct carbonate crystallizes in two forms ; the commoner form calcite. Magnesium.—Magnesium is a metal distinguished in its occurrence by being closely related to calcium. Like