The Iron Age 1890-04-10: Vol 45

‘TH HK —4 THURSDAY, APRIL 10, 1890. IRON AGE Power Press. The Ferracute Machine Company, of Bridgeton, N. J., recently made the stamping of the round number 2000 on a large power press the occasion for a social gathering, participated in by employers and employees with their lady friends, the scene of the festivities being the well-ap- POWER PRESS BUILT BY pointed shops of the company. The pro- moters of the enterprise were at first doubt- ful whether Vulcan and Terpsichore could be made to meet on acommon footing, but the success of the affair settled the question at least for such a ‘‘ meet” at the Ferra- cute. The buildings are pleasantly situ- ated on East Lake, and on the night in question presented a brilliant appearance. The company have their own incandescent lighting plant, and the many electric lights, reinforced by numerous Chinese lanterns, the whole being reflected on the lake, made a picture not easily forgotten. The pronounced success of the entertain- ment shows that it is admirable policy to | ment. In this room dies are under con- occasionally make a machine shop perform | struction for a number of articles, such as social duties. | fruit-jar covers, fruit-can tops and bot- A brief description of the works will | toms; ordinary tinware, such as coffee pots, prove interesting. ‘ stin On the first floor of &c., and heavy work in sheet steel, such the office building are offices devoted to| as parts of buggies, &c. The die shop the use of the president, secretary, stenog- | is connected with the second floor of an rapher and bookkeepers and a room| adjoining building bya bridge. Crossing fitted up with shelving for office supplies. | this bridge and opening a door at its Wi uit AAT HDI WL Hitt THE The drafting-room is a large, well-lighted apartment on the second floor of same building, and adjoining is the laboratory and photographing room, the latter fitted with dark-room for developing negatives, bath for large blue prints, &c. The second floor of the main shop contains a coat- room fitted with hooks (each space being numbered) for the use of the employees. The die designer has an office on this floor, but most of the remaining space is utilized by the die department, the machine tools used in the construction of dies being numerous, but smaller and lighter than similar tools in the press depart- FERRACUTE MACHINE COMPANY. terminus is found the pattern shop, a large room fitted up with wood-working machin- ery of all kinds. The forging shop has a building to itself, and contains steam and drop hammers and a number of forges and furnaces. In the erecting shop are some heavy machine tools placed near the sides of the building, the central space being devoted to the erection of the larger presses and other machines. We here present an engraving of the press above referred to. It is catalogued as Press 96. The extreme hight of the press is 8 feet; floor space occupied, 9 feet 8 inches by 4 feet; hole m bed, 54 x 534 THE IRON AGE, April 10, 1890 36 inches; hight bed to ram at top of stroke and vibatuanh, 14 inches; stroke of ram, 2 inches; adjustment of ram, 3 inches; diameter of fly-wheel and pulley, 44 inches, and face of each, 7 inches; pressure exerted in punching, about 85 tons; weight, about 12,000 pounds. Presses of this size and style are used for cutting out shovels, spades, windmill fans, circular saws, parts of agricultural im- plements, &c., from sheet iron or steel up to 4; inch or } inch thick. The machine shown contains an improved form of clutch and ram adjustment, and taken as a whole has the appearance of a well-proportioned and carefully designed power press. cr | Agricultura Depression. (Concluded from page 543, April 3.) The following table of prices of beeves in Chicago shows that the present values are lower than in any year since the ex- port of beef was inaugurated, with the sole exception of 1879. Prices increased till 1884, when they were highest, and fell heavily in 1886, advancing slightly in 1887, except as to the extra grade, and recovering further in 1888, only to con- tinue a decline during the past two years: 2 | 35 | Extra. Choice. | Good. | Medium. S| $ $ - 1876 | hicneetae 5.25 to 4.75 4.50 to 5.10/4.00 to 4.50 OT xa te 5.00 5.50/4.50 480/3.80 4.40 1878 [5.15 t05.404.50 4904.00 4.40)3.50 3.85 1879 |4.60 5.004.10 4.353.665 4.00/3.00 3.50 1880 |5.00 5.25/4.60 4.75)........... 3.50% 4.40 1881 |5.75 6254.85 5.40)... .....|3-75* 4.65 1882 16.50 6855.85 6.35/4.50 5.15)...... .. . 1883 6.25 6.505.80 6.105.40 5.70/4.40 5.00 1884 7.00 7.25630 6.406.00 6.25/4.50 5.00 1885 |6.65 6.8516.25 6.605.75 610)5.00 5.50 1886 5.17 5,704.30 5.00'3.85 4.55/3.50 4.15 1887 5.00 5.154.75 5,004.20 4.50/3.75 4.10 1888 5.25 5.50/4.85 5.154.25 4.60/4.00 4.20 1889 15.00 5.2514.65 4.904.25 4.50/3.65 4.00 1890 '4.90 5.20/4.50 4.75406 4.40/3.25 3.90 * Good to medium includes two grades. Thus the staple products of agriculture, by increase of farms, by railroad building and land settlement, and the increase of agricultural implements, are grown to ex- cess, while other products with which our farmers are not familiar are neglected, and left to foreign labor to produce, while our own rural labor is only partially employed, or else is crowding production of these old staples, and still further lowering prices and intensifying dissatisfaction with the results of agricultural effort. It is futile to attempt to dey the law of supply and demand. So long as farmers insist on growing only the bread grains, cotton, tobacco, and cattle, and to neglect other products which arg needed, which we import at a cost of more than $200,000, - 000 annually, just so long will the lamen- tation over low prices continue. Diversi- fication is essential to agricultural salva- tion. THE MIDDLEMAN. There is a further cause of low prices, which farmers should understand, very difficult to remedy, demanding serious consideration and wise action It is found in the combination of carriers and middle- men to absorb a large share of the proceeds of the sale of farm products. Beeves are sold by growers for seven-tenths to three- fourths of the prices of a few years ago, and the meat is sold to consumers in the retail markets at little if any reduction from the highest prices of the last 20 years. For instance, prime rib roasts have been sold in Washington during that period for 20 cents per pound, and sirloin steaks for the same. There has been little variation, as a general rule, in the prices of the less valuable cuts. The same complaint comes from‘consumers in other cities. All kinds of meats, vegetables and fruits furnish similarly subsistence to armies of middle- men. Milk is bought froni farms, for the supply of New York, for less than 3 cents per quart, and sold to consumers for 8 cents, The hucksters of city markets often get as much for handling a product, |. in a single day, as the grower obtained for producing it during a season’s growth. The contrast between the price of fruit on the farm and in a city market is a sugges- tion of greed and extortion. In many markets the prices of variable products are fixed for the day at early dawn, not with reference to their cost but in view of the comparative quantity, to squeeze from the buyer the last cent that his patience will endure without declining a purchase. The poor are robbed still further when a com- modity costs 25 cents a peck, by a charge of 15 cents tor a half peck, which is a clear penalty of 20 per cent. for buying in small quantities. The army of dealers in futures who bet upon the price of grain in the coming months, and bend their energies to shape prices to suit their deals, do other injury than merely to prey on each other; they disturb the natural flow of trade and check exportation by a temporary rise in values, which leads inevitably to lower prices, later and greater fluctuations, which are the meat and life of thisclass and the bane of the farmer’s market for wheat. There may be minor causes of depression which have not yet been considered, but they are impotent and unimportant in comparison with those outlined. The main difficulty is, there is overproduction of a few staples and quite too limited a list of rural products. There is too much hog and hominy and a narrow range of delica- cies that are so eagerly sought by the buyer and so profitable to the producer. There is too much rural labor unemployed, and too much mechanical and manufactur ing labor idle in both cases for lack of suf- ficient variety, and because $500,000,000 or $600,000,000 are spent in foreign coun- tries for products that could better be made here. During the last ten years more than 2,000,000 workers in agriculture, armed with improved implements, have been added to the 7,000,000 that were makin corn and wheat and cotton; and shal they still insist on the same limited range of effort, walk in the same furrows their father turned, and seek to live and die in the same overdone and profitless routine ? If so, agricultural depression will become chronic and intensified to a degree un- known at present. Shall farmers hug the chains of their dependence, limit the range of their industry, refuse tostrike out into the new paths, and sink into comparative idleness and poverty? There are millions of them too intelligent and enterprising and ambitious to co-operate in any such scheme of self-degradation. Judge Patterson, of the Supreme Court, ° in this city, has just handed down a deci- sion upon a question of some interest to corporations. The decision concerns the right of one corporation to use a title closely resembling that of another and rival corporation. The Employers’ Liabil- ity Assurance Corporation asked for a permanent injunction against the Employ- ers’ Liabiiitiy Insurance Company of the United States, restraining the defendant corporation from using the words ‘‘ Em- ployers’ Liability” in their title, on the ground that the exclusive right to use them was in the plaintiff, and that their use would produce a confusion, and result in injury to the plaintiff. Judge Patter- son refused the injunction, holding that the words referred to were the general designation of a certain kind of business, and expressed neither ae sepa gs nor origin, and that the defendant had fairly cleared itself of the charge of attempted imitation of the plaintiff's title. As to the confusion feared, he said the other words of the two titles were sufficiently dissimilar to prevent that. + The Bounty Bill. The Bounty bill, designed to please the American merchant marine in the foreign trade on an equality with that of other nations, has been reported by the House Committee, together with a report of the mivority. The only amendment of importance fixes the rate of bounty at 15 cents per ton tor 500 miles sailed or for a less distance, and 15 cents per ton for the next 500 miles, and 30 cents per ton per 1000 miles in excess of the first 1000 miles, The estimate of the committee is that under the terms of the bill the pay- ment in bounties for the first year would be, for sail vessels, $1,644,818; steam vessels, $1,715,922; total, $3,360,741. The annual increase would be about 5 per cent., so that it would be eight years before the annual bounty would amount to $5,000, - 000. The minority express the opinion that bounties will not restore our shipping interest, and believe that the most effect- ive way to bring about the revival of American ~~ industry is for Con- gress (1) to place all materials that go into the- construction of ships upon the free list ; (2) to repeal all laws in restraint of trade, and (3) to repeal our restrict- ive navigation laws and permit our mer. chants to buy their ships where they can buy them the cheapest and sail them under the American flag. In view of the fore- going facts the minority recommenas that the bill for the free admission to American registry of ships built abroad be substi- tuted for the bi.l repealed by the commit- tee. It is reported that a syndicate is being organized in Boston for the pur- pose of building 20 iron steamships to engage in a general coastwise foreign trade as soon as the Tonnage bill becomes a law. ee Preliminary work has been commenced at the Navy Department on the plans for the harbor defense ram authorized by the last Congress, Thelaw provides fora ram of the type approved by the Naval Ad- visory Board in its report of November 7, 1881. This is what is known as the Am- men ram, being designed by Rear Ad- miral Daniel Ammen, retired. Calculations are being made for a vessel of 2700 tons displacement, 262 feet long on the water line, with a 17-foot projecting ram below the water line, 46 feet beam and 17 feet draft. The speed being figured upon is 18 knots, which would require engines of about 6000 horse-power. If built ac- cording to Admiral Ammen’s ideas, the vessel will carry no guns, and will rely for offense solelyon herram. Thus she would not have to carry the weight of guns and ammunition, and, being intended for har- bor defense, would not have to carry a great supply of coal and stores, and con- sequently most of her weight could be divided between hull and machinery. This being the case, she ought to have much more than 18 knots speed. She ought to be fast enough to overtake any vessel liable to be sent against her. The Board of Bureau Chiefs of the Navy Department has recommended to Secretary Tracy the adoption of the plan proposed by Engineer-in-Chief Melville for measur- ing the speed of the new cruisers, for which speed premiums are to be paid. The speed will be calculated by first as- certaining the rumber of revolutions made per knot at different speeds, and then from the whole number of revolutions made in a four-hours’ run the average speed will be calculated. THE IRON AGE. April 10. 1890 tions point strongly to the conclusion that carbon has the greater influence upon the rate of expansion. There was no marked difference in the rate of expansion of wrought iron which had been overstrained nearly to its limit of rupture, and the same metal an- nealed. The above co-efficients for. steel refer to annealed or hot-rolled metal. Recent experiments made at the Water-| Further experiments were made for the town Arsenal furnish the results here | purpose of determining the effect of hard- presented. They embrace tests with dif- | ening or sudden quenching from a high Physical Properties of Iren and Steel at Higher Temperature, BY JAMES E. HOWARD, WATERTOWN ARSENAL, WATERTOWN, MASS. ———— | Co-efficient of Chemical composition. | expansion. mae. |Marks.| | | | P Per degree c. |Mn_| si. | difference, |Fabr. per unit of length. } | sss. 65 aces ec cviwnseesaciesnecdaseaceedieccsleees fe cca ekaueeaanae - 0000067302 MG is ee ecrskehemieersncaesdtyncenaces la OP TE 0k! 99.80 0000067561 Pits op kicncdnvdiecrnasendkiieetigupineta 2a | .20) .45)....| 99.35 .0000066259 PEE. ccxiaknd eas Cap aceleenyacerdawkeas niet Sa cif 99.12 -0000065149 MUM 302. Lh cisuniegskatebniuwt Vadee Sain’ 4a | .37| .70,..... 98.98 .0000066597 NE id, aa Ga Pee SA ACK MMEADERCERSKWURREOAEwS 5a -51| .58) .02 98.89 - 0000066202 PN v2. chs eb Sac VeMNee sbaveneksieen ade'seee 6a -57| .98) .07 98.43 .0000063891 OR. nce tkndaredesdeeseectetseesuruece cons 7a -71; .58) .08 98.63 - . 0000064716 ME chaceNs Cdban tab ba veesrevinneeueses Sa | .81) .56) .17 98.46 . 0000062167 EE eA in tude cesar endeckaaenna van kae Anes 9a | .89) 57 .19 98.3 .0000062335 Steel...... eseeeeeers a Hip awenek tan! eaaeaitee 10a -97| .80) .28 97.95 .0000061700 Cn OD SER vs vvtcke Kise ses cnccecnexeuedelccuscacatecuslaccalasesteedviacnwdes - 0000059261 TOE CODON occ siveccns cetieccccasecveevelscnvecas itis SeabvahveNetveeana’ canoe - 0000091286 Table I.—UCo-efficients of Expansion.—First Series. ferent grades of steel, wrought iron and | temperature, first made with oil and then cast iron, the complete details of which | with water as the quenching liquid. Ten are recorded in the annual reports of tests | steel bars, representing the several grades of metals.— Congressional Documents. of meltal in the first series, were heated Co-efficients of Expansion by Heat.— These values were determined by direct measurements of the expansion of the metal, observed upon a specimen length of 35 inches and exposed to a range of temper- ature of about 210° F., as shown by mer- curial thermometers. The gauged lengths on the specimens were defined by small | ————a = 80° F. the bars in the ice-water bath. bright cherry-red and quenched in oil at, The determinations following | efficients diminish with increase of carbon, this treatment were made beginning with | the hardened bars divested of the element After|of permanent diminution in length, dis- measuring they were transferred to the} play a decided elevation in this value, hot bath, the maximum tempreature of| reaching a maximum in the high temper 585 eee ception of two specimens the other bars were shortened by the treatment, but only slight amounts. Just when this permanent diminution in length occurred is not known, but if this be- havior indicates an increase in density or the release and readjustment of internal strains, robably the rearrangement was facilitated y and consequently took place during the higher temperatures of the hot bath, and while the metal was then expanded certain other forces contributed towards shortening the bars in opposition to the direct effect of the heating. The co- efficients under falling temperature were normal or nearly so; thus, we observe that mcderate heating restored the disturbed state of the metal due to oil-quenching from the temperature above stated. The same bars were in heated bright eherry-red and quenched in water at 50° to 55°F. The phenomena ——— observed were now displayed and in a more marked degree than before. The co-efticient. of expansion under rising temperature, in- fluenced by the permanent diminution in length going on simultaneously with the heating, was apparently so low as 0.0000023564 in bar No. 10 A. The max- imum temperature of the hot bath in this instance was 233.7° F. When returned to the cold bath all the bars were found shortened amounts rang- ing from 0.0010 to 0.0343 inch, the greater diminution occurring with the high-temper metal. Returning the bars to the cold bath and computing the co- efficients from the contractions then ob- served, it was found that bar No. 10 A had the co-efficient 0.0000072958, and three other bars had co-efficients above 0.000007. Whereas, in the annealed bars the co- drilled and countersunk holes, the dis-| Chemical composition. Co-efficient of tances between them being measured by expansion. means of a micrometer mounted on a suit- able frame, which was provided with Marks. l conical points made to enter the holes in a Fa. by Per degree ; he : : —. Fahr. per unit the specimen, while the latter was im- | C. Mn.) Si. | S. | P. | Cu. difference. |"Gr jength mersed in a bath at a distance below the | , surface of the liquid. ae ee emesis ea The experimental bars were first meas-| 1b .......... .....c.ceeeceececeeeeees .17 1.13} .028 122,079) 04 98 .436 .0000067886 ured in a bath of ice water and again in > PWiacuddsestd nana lice eedae ae 5 _— Saas = foe rene l il, D , > we | i isicuis ee eae vet adewid even ke cae 2 on a. . 14) .05! | .251 - 00000676: a we greenies 4 BEE ih sepuistasseterees sumescabeagag ay 26 1:07|:11 |.096|:08 |.047; 98.387 | 10000067476 ee ee Wk cena dinhbrinstiaciiinagunnets | 26 1.26|.07 |.112|.06 |.088/ 98.200 | .0000067102 for the purpose of veryfying to observa-| 7b... o.oo... ccc cccceccceceeeeeceuucs | .26 1.28) .07 |.115].062|.035) 98.178 | .0000067175 tions previously made and to ascertain) 8b.................cc cece eeeeeeeee eens | ,28,1.23).09 |.168).09 |.178| 97.964 0000067 whether any permanent changes in length oa WT TOTEPS CRE CUO TC ree 43) 97.05 |-08 mr a oe - 0000066124 . ee ee ek oie ales aah wai ecko Maiara ah ka ae dee “ 03) .057). ° 1.2 ? YS. ‘a Ss COR , -samaganemtamatinnraacurrseaenbite 53| °75|.10 |.078|.087|.174, 98.281 | |0000064181 a Cancers Oar, properea Wi OE ie Shitedbvestwtauncnesniaaereewsts .55/1.02).05 |.078).12 |.15 | 98.082 -0000066 122 and countersunk holes 35 inches apart, Was | 14b.............0cececceeseeeceesenenes .72) .70|.18 |.07 |.13 |.23 | 97.970 | .0000064330 kept in the cold bath, and the micrometer 15b. a at aa ae a ae lee 72 -%6 -2 |.056 -086) .186 97.992 | 0000063080 was compared with this standard before| 16D............+-+sseeseeeeeeeeeeeeees -79, .86|.21 |.084 .008.096/ 97.867 | .0000068562 and after each reading was taken on PC hiapen aces takai eueent enemas aaa 1.07) .07/.13 |.01 |.018).006 98.696 -0000061528 ; a Re SR crs vexahuiucenteeincdbatateacies 1.08) .12|.19 |.011,.02 | Tr.| 98.579 | .0000061702 experimental bar. The specimens were 19b....... 02.0.2... ice ec ee eececec eens 1.12) .10|.09 |.013 .018| Tr.| 98.659 | .0000062589 kept in each bath at least two hours be- | 20b................cccceceeeeeeeeee eens 1.14 = BS .018) Tr. 98.592 | ——= fore measuring 21b ee eee eee Hee ee ees eeeeseserseseses 1.17 oa |.10 Tr. O18 0 | 98.612 | .000006 » : a Recall al sf SE 560 hvas ake iacssenndeearpaeballo 1.31) .13|.19 |.011 .026| Tr.| 98.383 | 0000061478 The average values obtained with the | ‘gy 1.26 1.22/.14 |.107 .072/.024 98.177 | Not determ’ed first series of bars are exhibited in Table 1. In this series the steel specimens were turned down in the lathe to 1-inch diame- ter from 1}-inch hot-rolled bars. The wrought iron and cast iron to 14 inch diameter, and the copper bar was 14-inch diameter. Subsequent determinstions with a second series of steels gave the results shown in Table 2. _ These results show the highest co-effi- cients of expansion for the wrought iron and mild steels, lower values for the harder steels and lowest for the castiron. In the first series of steels the variations in the co-efficients approximately followed the carbon and also the quantity of iron pres-| ent. In the second series other elements took a wider range, and here the indica- which reached 235° F., and again re- turned to the cold bath and remeasured. of the high carbon bars appeared erratic, but this was explained when they were re- mneasured in the cold bath. It was found that bars Nos. 9A and 10 A, containing 0.89 and 0.97 per cent. carbon, respect- ively, were permanently shortened on their gauged lengths the amounts 0.0037 inch and 0.0047 inch below the lengths when measured in the cold bath succeed- ing the oil quenching, but preceding the | heating in the oil bath. With the ex- Table II.—Uo efficients of Expansion, —Second Series. bars, but with little if any gain in the mild steels. We do not infer that an increase Under rising temperature the behavior |in the rate of expansion of mild steel is unattainable. Had the quenching been done from higher temperatures and in a more energetic quenching liquid, the re- sults might or might not have been differ- ent. Again exposing the bars to the tempera- ture 300° F. for a period of six hours, cooling and reheating in the bath to 243° and then cooling, there was a further diminution in lengths, most conspicuous in the high temper bars, yet their co-effi- 586 THE IRON AGE. April 10, 1890 cients continued highest. The lower car- bon bars had more nearly reached a state of repose or molecular equilibrium at these moderate temperatures than the high temper bars, 1f their smaller sets may be thus interpreted. Finally the bars were annealed by heat- ing bright cherry-red and cooling in pine shavings, which restored the metal to the rate of expansion first observed. The de- tails of these determinations have been entered upon somewhat at length because quite opposite opinions seem to prevail concerning the relative rates of expansion of different grades of steel, much hght being thrown upon the subject by these tests The Moduli of Elasticity.—The moduli of elasticity were obtained with the first series of bars at temperatures from atmos- pheric up to 495° F. The specimens were strained in an oil bath, the temperature being taken with mercurial thermometers, and the elongations measured by means of | a micrometer mounted in the same manner as when used in determining the co- oh cect Pb ire [? R725. Lo. S Str ae apn eee not proportional to the rate of expansion by heat, the reduction going on at an ac- celerating rate as higher temperatures are reached. Both bars received slight per- manent sets under stress at their maximum temperatures. It is uncertain whether the modulus of elasticity was materially affected thereby. Overstraining at atmospheric tempera- ture is known to cause temporary reduc- tion, and these bars apparently had mod- uli somewhat lower at the close than at the commencement of the tests. Other tests failed to show any change of this kind re- sulting from overstraining at higher temper- atures when examined after periods of rest ranging from sixteen hours to about as many days. The Tensile Strength.— The _ tensile strength was determined with specimens, 0.798 inch in diameter by 5 inches length of stem. They were confined within a sheet iron muffle, and were heated by means of a row of gas burners arranged ‘within the ‘muffle below the specimen. By varying the number of burners in use, the pressure Pte bee epee et be oo PSs aaa eee: 7 BH Poe Ste Betta Seay ee BEES 30 000m Re co F HE Rei retry eats a Re St pert QOOGO e Tt Seeeeee Poe — VIG - See ie Rt HH cS Prt cS TTT rrr Se Sucesesses 4 eenneses ro 0, OOD tH Be So ct] aT crt Co ae er eee Pt be ebabenean ie te ee —— pe eer orrits [SHSsHSHSE es ttt Ht ory RHEE EHR tH HH re Petty ee Sr H corte RQOO OSS To . ctr r t os Stott rt Letty PrttHttt +++ ; + +44 + Hit +44 St Tinh sea Wnt +44 45 SHA ttt tstt444 jSSgeesese seeesecess MISH SST bette tet tere ne stat ae tte ++ 4 tHe et tet epee biG + bEee teeter ii oe tT ++++ S3t3 44 +4 Ha Ti rH SETHE tt Ht 1 + > + see sos pe pt ~ ++ Hitt +e ppheeesasesssenens mt Scness! Sor 4 +H tf I ttt + ° 700 00 00 00 00 300 G00 000 Temperature, dagrees Furr. efficients of expansion. The results show that the modurus of elasticity diminishes with increase of temperature. The average rate of reduction, taken over a range of about 400°, was from 1359 to 8294 pounds per square inch per degree F. The indi- cations were far from being uniform, but taken as they stand it appeers that there is a more rapid rate of reduction in the wrought iron and mild steel than in the harder metal and a less rapid rate of re- duction in some of the cast irons. Two specimens of the second series were experimented upon at higher tem peratures. The neating of these bars was done ina hot air muffle, estimating the temperature from the expansion of the metal observed between reference points 10 inches apart. Bar No. 5 B displayed a modulus of elas- ticity of 29,000,000 pounds per square inch at 70° F., which was lowered to 16,- 980,000 pounds per square inch at 1353° F. No. 17 B at 76° gave 29,771,000 pounds per square inch and at 1400° only 14,173,000 pounds per square inch. Deter- minations at intermediate temperatures showed that the reduction did not take place at a uniform rate with increase of temperature, or at least that the rate of reduction of the modulus of elasticity was or the gas and also by the use of different diaphragms for diffusing the heat, it was possible to maintain a practically uniform temperature at any desired point. Differ ent methods of determining the tempera- ture of the tests were considered. It was, however, decided to employ the specimen itself as the thermometer and measure its expansion above atmospheric temperature. From the observed expansion was com- puted the temperature, using the coeffi- cients previously determined, and assum- ing that the rate of expansion continued uniform under the higher temperatures, this method has many alvantages and seems to be reliable for temperatures up to those where the metal becomes plastic and devoid of elastic limit, and also excepting those states of the metal which were en- countered in the coefficient of expansion determinations of tempered bars. The expansion was measured on a specimen length of 6 inches, defined in the usual manner by drilled and countersunk holes. Access to the specimen was had through holes in the top of the muffle, which ad- mitted the conical points of the microm- eter. It is not thought that the instru- mental error in measuring the length of the hot specimen exceeded 0.0002 inch, Hh ttt eet EGET TH ee ttt tItyy + which corresponds to a variation in tem- perature of 5.4°, according to the lowest coefticient of expansion used. The dura- tion of a test ranged from five to ten min- utes, the longer time being employed with strong or with ductile specimens ruptured at ordinary temperatures. The tempera- ture of the bar was kept constant for a period of time preceding the test equal to that employed in making the test. The results show that the tensile strength diminishes as the temperature in- creases from zero F. until a minimum is reached between 200° and 300°, the mild steels appearing to reach the place of mini- mum strength earlier than the higher car- bon bars. From the temperature of this first minimum strength the bars displayed greater tenacity with an increase of tem- perature until the maximum is reached between the temperatures 400° to 650° F. The hard steels reach the temperature of maximum strength somewhat earlier than the mild steel and retain the highest strength over a more limited range of tem- ‘ perature than the latter. From the place of maximum strength the tenacity diminishes with increase of temperature, rapidly with the hard steel, somewhat less so with the mild steel, until the highest temperatures are reached cov- ered by these experiments. Diagram 1 shows the curves of tensile strength of several grades of steel and of cast iron. Diagram 2 of certain wrought irons. The cast iron appears to maintain its strength with a tendency to increase until 900° are reached, beyond which tempera- ture the strength gradually diminishes. Under the highest temperatures numerous cracks on the cylindrical surface of the specimen were developed prior to rupture. It is remarkable that cast iron, so much inferior in strength to the steels at atmos- pheric temperature, under the highest temperatures has nearly the same strongth the high temper steels then have. The converging lines of the diagram show that steels differing nearly 90,000 pounds per square inch, when cold, at the higher temperatures have approachd each other and differ in tensile strength less than 10,000 pounds per square inch. If increased carbon content lowers the melt- ing point the curves of strength might be April 10 1890 on expected to intersect at some high tem- erature. As we approach the melting joint there is, however, difficulty in dis- tinguishing between the resistance against rupture due to overcoming the forces of cohesion and what we take to be inter- molecular friction, and this kind of action revents definitiveness of results at certain temperatures. a The so called ‘‘ critical temperature” or blue heat where metal commonly dis- plays brittleness under bending tests comes in at a time when the metal under direct tensile stress is in the vicinity of its maxi- mum value. A wrought iron called iron A was se- lected for test because it had been found very hot-short at a welding temperature, and furthermore betause it had been strained by tension with 42,320 pounds per square inch seven years previous to being cut into specimens for the hot tests. Here conse- quently was an opportunity for observing the effect of higher temperatures upon a metal in a high state of initial resistance due to overstraining, and one which at the same time lacked ductility at high temperatures. The results showed high tensile strength throughout the range of temperatures, and not until reaching 1568° F. Kid its hot-short, crumbling nature ap- pear. The strength at the temperature of SIRI PINNED SIN NEUEN ES ey Th a) Ae ry possesses: eh | perv rte tis ed THE IRON AGE. perature 214° to 587° steel 6A 21,200 pounds per square inch. Wrought iron B, which fractured when cold under 47,140 pounds per square inch, reached 58,520 pounds per square inch at 592°. The muck-bar axle showed 64,600 pounds per square inch, t. s., at 379°. At tempezatures from about 650° to 850° the bars have passed the stage of maxi- mum tenacity and have returned to the strength at atmospheric temperature. At 1000° the strength ranged from say 50 to 70 per cent. of the strength at 70°, with a continual decrease above this point. The Stress on the Ruptured Section.— The stress on the ruptured section resem- bles somewhat the curve of tensile strength. The speed of testing affects this value more or less, and failure of the specimen in detail may render it difficult to identify the load at which contraction ceases and rupture begins. At atmospheric tempera- ture the stress on the ruptured section in pounds per square inch exceeded the ten- sile strength over 100 per cent. in the case of mild steel, this excess diminishing with the harder metal to about 11 per cent. gained the several grades of steel here represented when eompared with the stress on the ruptured section, than when the compari- Pit Id heeehehedhedetbepeeectee Poet aH ttt sees Pott Seeses : Fees eee eo 2b, 28uc: 39 Sobece seCSSEESESESEESEESEEES SSE er sense rs ve. ie See - wie Te seseaseccs: ) Leet +e oes re: ree Whence it follows that variations | in strength are less conspicuous between eee ee re SSSR STA © -8SSSSSeSSSeSeE Eee So Po 587 | cal examination of the elastic limits at | different temperatures, using a modified |form of specimen not admissible in this | general series of tests. | The Contraction of Area.—The contrac- | tion of area at the place of rupture varies | with the temperature of the metal. The | contraction of mild and medium hard steel is somewhat less at 400° to 600° than at atmospheric temperature, and within this zone there is a tendency to fracture in an oblique direction across the bar. The hard steels showed substantially the same contraction up to 500°. Above 500° or 600° the contraction increases with increase of temperature, excepting bars 8A, 9A and 10A, which formed a special group and displayed as‘age of diminiched contraction at 1100° to 1200° until at the highest temperatures some of the specimens drew down almost to points before rupture was complete. The diminished contraction at 400° to 600°, coupled with the tendency to fracture in an oblique shearing direction, /are significant features, inasmuch as they harmonize with the brittleness frequently observed in bending tests at these temper- atures previously alluded to. Specimens of large contraction, tested at high temperatures, have given evidence on the fractured ends of having ruptured in | detail, commencing at the center of the br Lddedeeceed Pd ssesaceses Seseuussescanesesasea Si Poet eee Petes (ovens eeuecessss H ES. Lbs. per vg. trech. SS 206 ? Seerecetesesesectess : Het ee CDSE SREN SSIS EHINSHIRSSSTES ESE Copper Pettitt ttt NT RIHE INSINE REESE pecesceses Sececscesstestesssetssttaraasseseeres== ESSSSSSSSEEESES EH SSeSSeEEERE ES SEES EE SE SESE og 700 200 D0 Yoo vovo Go 000 MOO 7200 AI00 Temperature , degreas Fuhr. the testing-room was 61,180 pounds per|son is made between tensile strengths re- square inch, and rose to 70,000 pounds per square inch at 570°. The continu- ance of high strength over a wide range of temperature leads to the inference that the effect of cold straining may not be eliminated until a comparatively high temperature is reached. Inferences of this sort are intended to apply only to the spe- cial property under consideration, because the effects of heat do not seem to follow parallel lines in reference to the several physical properties. Wrought iron B, an ordinary grade of refined iron, resembled the mild steel in its behavior, except that in neither this nor in iron A was there discovered any stage of diminished resistance or temperature of first minmum strength in the vicinity of 200° to 300°. Four specimens from a muck-bar railway axle gave results in har- mony with the other irons, displaying Strength intermediate between irons A and B. Numerically speaking, the greatest loss observed iu passing from 70° to the tem- perature of first minimum strength oc- curred with steel 9A, which was 6.5 per cent. at 295°. The greatest gain over the strength at 70° was 25.8 per cent. shown by steel 1A at 460°, although in total gain in pounds per square ae this, it was exceeded, by steel 6A at 587° where the gain was 15,120 pounds per square inch 12.8 per cent. In passing from the tem- ferred to the primitive areas. At each of the temperatures at which the stress on the ruptured section was ascertained, and with the different grades of metal this value maintained its position in advance of the tensile strength at corresponding temperatures. That is to say, the stress per unit of area at the time of rupture al- ways exceeded the stress per unit of area as commonly given when stating the ten- sile strength of the metal. The Elastic Limit.—The elastic limit appears to steadily diminish with increase of temperature. In these tests the elastic limits were taken when there was a sen- sible increase in the rate of elongation under equal increments of load. Accord- ing to this method of determination the | elastic limits were generally well defined | at moderate temperatures. The gradual change in the rate of elongation at times teaves the position of the elastic limit vague and uncertain, especially so at high temperatures. were rigidly excluded very low values would pertain to high temperatures, if in- deed such would not be the case at mode- rate temperatures, say in the vicinity of 500° and above. Considering the behav- ior of steel 1 A, calling the elastic limit 100 at 70°, the elastic limits at higher temperatures were 88 at 334°, 76 at 492° and 49 at 934°. Other specimens have been prepared with which to make a criti- | taken between the pulling heads of the If all determinable sets | from the specimen. bar, the surface metal separating last. A test was discontinued when the contraction had reached 94.4 per cent., the temper- ature at the time being 1451°, and upon filing away a portion of the outside metal a cavity was disclosed at the center of the bar at the place of minimum sectional area. When large contraction of area oc- curs local contraction generally extends over a considerable length of specimen. As examples of large contraction, it will be mentioned that a specimen of steel, 4A, which was fractured at the tem»erature 1572° contracted 98.9 per cent. Steel 10A, which contained .97 per cent. C. and was brittle in the fracture when the cold con- tracted 57.6 per cent. at 1638°, and other hard steels showed large contractions at correspondingly high temperatures. Elongation Under Stress and After Rupt- ure.—Tne approximate elongation under stress was determined from measurements | testing machine at a convenient distan-e It appears that total elongation, that which is measured after | the rupture of the metal, is greatest at ‘ordinary temperatures, although at high temperatures the metal is ductile and may be worked under the hammer, it does not | then possess within itself sufficient strength to develop great elongation, considering |now the general elongation of the metal | beyond the influence of local contraction incident to drawing down at the place of 588 THE IRON AGE. April 10, 1890 eee rupture. In carrying out the experiments | 3, furnishes an illustration of this kind. the elongation was noted at the tims of| Observations on the contractile force de- reaching the maximum stress, and this elongation approximately represents the general stretch of the metal. Butin these observations there existed, at times, great uncertainty, because the metal as it con- tracts locally increases in resistance in stress per square inch. An accelerating rate of flow takes place locally when general elongation ceases. The inter- molecular friction under rapid flow in- creases the apparent resistance. The grooved form assu.ned by the specimen is favorable for increased resistance per unit of area. These several features contribute toward concealing the time when general veloped during cooling from high tem- perature showed the same kind of behavior then took place. These intervals of re- laxation and rigidity occurring under both rising and falling temperature are suggestive of some’ remarkable change taking place within the metal in this zone of temperature, phenomena conspicuous in a series of tests possessing many re- markable features. After passing this critical stage of seemingly unstable coadi- tion the metal, under higher temperatures, gradually stretches uader advancing loads, accelerating in speed as the tensile strength is approached. atmospheric temperature, has a very de. cided influence upon the apparent tenacity at — temperatures. Steel No. 8A was tested at the adopted speed of the series and also under sapbaty-agietied stresses. The time employed to reach the maximum stress under the latter condition of test was from two to eight seconds, Near| the same strength was displayed whether slowly or rapidly fractured at temperatures below 600°, this being a comparatively brittle metal at moderate temperatures, Above this temperature the apparent strength of the rapidly fractured speci- mens largely exceeded the strength of the others. The higher the tempera. ture the wider apart in general were wee SSeeeeeeearerseees titi eee Li] eases r+ } o } PS Se t HH “Deeraocerte ok Peanskte Beast eed Berrys da c Rt Peete <ccne TH or Perri ttt ttt tt 2 Prrrtr SEE eee eee ee pret bebe ee as Pia ae HI rary, tp a ee ON TTEMV? * piled TTT rere eee | Te re as + ! ‘ ¢ ony ee eee ee ease eeees Dil meer t: = pt Ee 4+ ++ Ht Lod 4 Pe Poti tpi. con bas ro t+ + ry H RO san rot Pit Cr rr H Pl Pitti Ht aseeeeseuses im Att Pee = CO t PETE pits ptt SGQGRe CRSSEEeeeseseses Pe RS ees VET EERE ae aS ee : EEE EEE Hi Ha a saeeeee”_.~8 spas O OO | aH Pa tr A 7 ppb Fa Saupe cesses ageeeseuesssess pao Cr cot A Hy Be eo io OD mee PA AH Pitid Be aD Stroma ee ee » Pee A i i c} Ai Es St Lia oe e Poort nth Fa YZ ate Hittite ie eee See a ae 1 seec=senea ot ot Satiowa to . St rr Hy Se y \ oiler Hitter ttt r+ Tt Ager t ii ti tr ct tT etd ott . eee SEeneeesedi oa ar; ) eas seuss Wott meet coo Son Da As coo 2 Hote S- Piette =e ter Ty a HH ry rrr Tt Ee | aml LA ae s =F - Ht - 7 seees| scccaceeeunen>—se Se) B PH eee anes Hoe i t rita + - SryyMAt ee eee : PTT Tina itt tort Trt oy ct HTT H ae t jsuseeel & 4 aH +H a0 eee EERE TEE a a Sat SH Pett tr wht Crit s Bett ttt > <anen Seo Poet reas tits En Pi it i. und be ++ NE aH Her ' hh hk hk a tt tet tt hat oe He RA FULL A 6. EE Canee Sotto Coo Ce oe oH seeueecest Lies they SH tt tt Stith +++ 4444-44 oe 3 Oo é Fg elongation ceases and iocal contraction sets ! The interval between the elastic limit and the maximum stress has features of great interest. Several of the different grades of steel show a yielding point at the elastic limit, this period being marked by rapid stretching without increase of stress, and frequently the stretching once begun will continue under reduced loads. It rarely happens that yielding of this kind occurs more than once when the test is made at atmospheric temperature. In mild steel this phenomenon has been ob- served up to the vicinity of 500°. In hard steel, if present, it occurs at less elevated temperatures. Bars tested at temperatures between 200° and 400° exhibited alternate periods of relaxation and rigidity under increasing stresses, resembling a succession of yielding points, thus giving a zig-zag appearance to the curve representing the tensile test. Test bar No. 1755, diagram Mlongatton , Per cere. This further peculiarity is noticed con- cerning the stretch of the metal under stress, that greater rigidity exists under certain stresses at intermediate tempera- tures than at either higher or lower tem- peratures. Specimen No. 1756, tested at 569°, illustrates the kind of behavior now referred to. In this specimen there was less stretch of the metal caused by loads above 50,000 pounds per square inch than was displayed by other bars tested above or below this in temperature. An inspection of diagram No. 3 will show a triangular area marked with the letter A where certain bars at compara- tively low temperatures displayed rigidity under stresses immediately following the elastic limit, rigidity through this range of stresses being peculiar to atmospheric temperatures and those somewhat above it. ae oor SGSRSRRSeeeeneesenenes rH Hs eee ere TT ttt ttt Pe eer AH EH 0 ae EPR EEE eee 70 9 12 43 14 the results. An extreme illustration of this kind was furnished by a specimen tested at 1410° which when ruptured in two seconds of time showed a ten- sile strength of 63,000 pounds per square inch as nearly as could be weighed, whereas at the ordinary speed of testing a corresponding bar fractured at 383,240 pounds per square inch. On the other hand, prolonged stress ap- pears capable of rupturing the metal under lower loads than ordinarily required, al- though the differences are less conspicu- ous than in the case of rapid testing. If, however, the stresses cowl be prolonged for days instead of hours, maintaining in the meantime a constant temperature, per- haps equally remarkable results might be reached in this way. Without —? at this time, into a discussion of the prob- The Rate of Speed of Testing.—The rate | able explanation of this behavior, it will of speed of testing which may modify the | be remarked that the forces of cohesion ‘results somewhat with ductile material at ‘tending to prevent rapture in a plane nor- April 10, 1890 THE IRON AGE. 589 a —=—————————— mal or oblique to the direction of the straining force and intermolecular friction developed during the flow of the metal are rominent or controlling elements, One or the other exerts a predominant influ- ence according to attendant circumstances. The Rate of Flow Under Stress.— Closely allied to the phenomena under consideration is the subject of the rate of flow under stress. Strains within the elastic limit appear to respond at once to the applied stresses. Thus no difference in the deflection of a transversely loaded rotating shaft was detected under the highest speed employed, when the stresses changed from tension to compression in one-forty-fifth second, the shaft being run at atmospheric temperature. The deflec- tions were measured under different speeds of rotation up to 1350 turns per minute and under diferent loads, the highest fiber stress reaching 50,000 pounds per square inch. Common experience teaches that the full effect of a load superior to the elastic limit is not immediately felt, and this ap- pears to be true at higher temperatures. A direct comparison of the relative rates of flow of the metal at different tempera- tures is difficult to undertake on account of the constantly changing values of the elastic limit and tensile strength. The impression, however, has been received that a more sluggish rate of flow of longer duration may take place at high than at low tem- peratures. A specimen of steel 10A was observed for a period of three hours, during which time the metal continued to elongate at anearly uniform rate of speed, stretching about 0.0008 of its length each five minutes. The stress was 20,000 pounds per square inch and the initial and final temperatures 1170° and 1189° re- spectively. Another example, furnished by the same grade of steel, showed a mean rate of flow of 0.0015 per unit of length per five minutes of time, with a slightly accelerating tendency. These last obser- vations were limited to one hour, the stress on the bar being 5000 pounds per square inch, and the initial and final temperatures 1505° and 1494° respectively. The apparent tensile strength of this steel, as shown by diagram 1, is 70,000 pounds per square inch at 1180° temperature, and 29,000 pounds per square inch at 1500°, hence the continuous yielding observed in these two instances, occurred under stresses of 28.6 per cent. and 17.2 per cent. of the tensile strength at correspond- ing temperatures. There was no corres- ponding test made with steel 10A at atmospheric temperature, but similar observations have been made with ductile metal at 70° F. A specimen of steel boiler plate was loaded with 41,000 pounds per square inch, or 70.4 per cent. of its tensile strength, and within ten minutes of time the stretching had almost ceased ; during the last minute the elon- gation was 0.00001 of its length. The elastic limit uf the boiler plate was 28,850 pounds per square inch. Under high temperature, generally speaking, the flow caused by a stress slightly in excess of the elastic limit, has a retarding rate of speed and eventually appears to cease, whereas under the in- fluence of a high stress the rate of flow may accelerate and end in the rupture of the metal. So long as the metal continues to stretch at a practically uniform rate of speed, however slowly that may be, we are left in doubt whether rupture would not ensue under the stress then acting if sufficient time were allowed. The Specific Gravity.—The specific gravity of specimens from the original hot- rolled bars, first series of steels, gave the following mean values: Steel Specific | Steel Specific marked. gravity. | marked gravity. Diiaseedees: ee 7.87 raed russes 7. Mee iXA cue. es TOO tO sis veces 7.8248 Leer ae A rere 7.8155 Hence it appears that a diminution in the quantity of iron present in the steel is ac- companied by a corresponding loss in density, excepting steel marked 8A, which according to table 1 has more iron than steel 6A. If we make the observatio