The Iron Age 1888-08-23: Vol 42

HE Improved Diamond Prospecting Drills. An improved form of diamond prospect- ing drill is now being put on the market by the American Diamond Rock Boring ee | >) T y . Ta i me — ‘s ! ee _ Fig. 1.—Front View. IMPROVED DIAMOND PROSPECTING Company, 15 Cortlandt street, New York, the engravings in this impression illustrat- ing its main features. It may not be without interest to ex- plain here that the principle of the dia- mond drill lies, first, in the rapid rotation of a hollow ‘‘ bit,” of which the cutting edges are the diamonds, set up in such a manner that they are the only parts of the tool that come in contact with the rock ; and second, in forcing a stream of water down through the interior of this bit, pass- ing up outside of it and carrying away the material ground up by the diamonds. The hollow bit is a steel thimble, having three rows of diamonds (bort or carbon) em- bedded in it, so that the edges of those in one row project from its face, while the edges of those in the other two rows pro- ject from the outer and inner periphery | breaking it at the bottom of the | securely wedging it in the core-barrel. | | water } constant stream of wate AucustT 23, 1888, THURSDAY, respectively. The diamonds of the first- mentioned row cut the path of the drill in | its forward progress, while those upon the | outer and inner periphery of the tool en- large the cavity around the same, and ad- *; : . | mit the free ingress and egress of the} screwed to the, core- | barrel or spiral grooved guide, and this to the drill rods, which are made of heavy | lap-weld tubing, and added, section after | section, as the hole deepens. When the drill-rods, with bit attached, are rotated and fed forward, the bit passes into the | rock, cutting an annular channel. That portion of the stone encircled by this chan- | nel is, of course, undisturbed, and the core-barrel passing down over this keeps water. The bit is is L it intact until the rods are withdrawn, } when the solid cylinder thus formed is | |} brought up with them, a ‘ core-lifter ” | DRILL, BUILT BY THE AMERICAN hole and At the upper end of the drill-rods is a with connection with the By méans of this pump a forced down through the hollow drill-rod, keeping the bit cool and the hole clear of sediment, which is forced by the water pressure up the outside of the rods to the surface. When a core is not required a solid bit may be used, the detritus being washed out by the water, as when boring with the annular bit. These general principles of boring with the diamond drill are always the same, the different machines, by com- | paratively slight changes, being applic- swivel, steam pump. is able to any kind of rock drilling. For | deep boring, for wells or for prospecting | mineral lands we use a machine with! DIAMOND IRON AGE double cylinder reversible engine, mounted either on bed-plate or an upright or hori- zontal tubular boiler. The capacity of the ' engine varies according to the depth and size of the hole which the drill is required to bore. Fig. 1 represents a front view of what is known as the No. 3 drill. It 1s operated by regular reciprocating engines, with cross-head and_ steel connecting’ rods and simple reversing arrangement. The valve motion is on the regular plan for hoisting or locomotive engines. The driv- | ing gears are of composition metal, and the engines can be run at a very high rate of speed, without vibration. Hydraulic feed is employed, replacing the differential feed on the boiler machines. By this the feed motion is accomplished, as its name in- dicates, by hydraulic pressure, through the View. Fig. 2— Side ROCK BORING CO., N. Y. medium of two small cylinders and pis- tons, the piston rods being connected bya suitable cross-head to the plain hollow spindle, which cagries the drillrod. Both ends of the hydraulic cylinders are con- nected by a system of pipes and hose to the pumps that supply the water necessary in drilling with the diamond bit. The quantity of water admitted to the cylinders is controlled by a four-way cock, which also admits water to either end of the cyl- inders, as the operator may require. Thus, it will be readily understood, the amdunt of pressure on the bit is directly under the control of the operator, and only limited by the water pressure from the supply pumps, the range being, in ordinary cases, from nothing up to 4000 pounds. The changes through the whole range of press- ure, and also the reversing of the motion 266 of the feed, are accomplished by simply | the stratification and character of the mine moving a small lever, while the machine is running at full speed. A pressure gauge is placed on the pipe leading to the hy- draulic cylinders, so that the operator can at all times just see how much pressure there is on the bit. With any constant pressure this feed gives a very perfect auto- matic adjustment of the speed with which | 250 pounds. the drill is fed forward, the rate of pro- | gression depending upon the hardness of the material, being from frequently less than 1 inch per minute in very hard rock, to over 2 feet per minute ina soft sub- stance like coal. This carries the ad- ditional advantage with it, that the op- erator, after some experience, can, by com- paring the pressure shown by the gauge with the rate of penetration of the dri'l, | its lightness, combined with ease of man- Fig. 3.—Drill with Hinged Swivel Head Open. IMPROVED DIAMOND PROSPECTING tell about what kind of material the bit is boring through and can make use of the knowledge thus obtained, either for speed or for safety. The swivel-head is hinged and so ar- ranged that by simply loosening one bolt it can be opened and swung out of the way when withdrawing the dyill rods from the bore hole or replacing them in it. This will be more clearly understood from Fig. 3. It can also be turned or ‘‘ swiveled” so as to adjust the spindle for boring ver- tically, horizontally or at any desired angle. The large hoisting-drum is fitted for wire rope, and is capable of handling 1000 feet of drill rods with a single whip. A slip drum is attached to same shaft for use in driving casing. The drill will bore vertically, horizon- tally or at any angle, to a depth of 1000 feet, taking out a core or sample of the rock penetrated. These samples are not disintegrated fragments of rock, but con- tinuous solid cylinders, showing clearly | ing a uniform pressure. | bore a 14-inch hole 250 feet in any direc- THE IRON AGE. August 23, 1888, sudden strain upon the cutting points in- cidental to drilling through soft into hard rock is thus avoided. The tubular drill-cod passes through the screw-shaft, and is held firmly by a chuck, the motion of the screw-shaft being thus communicated to the drill-rods and bit. In order to run the screw-shaft back after it has been fed forward its full length, it | 18 only necessary to release the chuck and to loosen the nut on the frictional gear, thus allowing the gear to run loose; then the screw-shaft will run up with the same motion which carried it down, but with a velocity 60 times greater. The chuck and nut are then tightened, giving the screw- shaft a grip on the drill-rod in a new place, and the drill is ready for another run. The drill-rods may be extended to or quarry at any depth. The No. 1 drill which the company build is the same as| that just described, but is mounted on a} carriage with a boiler outfit. The bit is 2) inches in diameter, and the core 1%inches. | The weight of the No. 3 machine is 1800) pounds, the heaviest piece weighing about 1 In Fig. 4 we show an underground prospecting and mining drill, which will tion, taking out a 1l-inch core. This drili can be run either by steam or compressed air, and is especially valuable in sinking shafts, driving tunnels, or in any posslble position where any kind or style of drill can be used. In underground prospecting Fig. 4.—Underground Prospecting and Mining Drill. DRILL, BUILT BY THE AMERICAN DIAMOND ROCK BORING CO., N. Y. . agement, makes it particularly valuable. | any desired length by simply adding fresh A differential feed is employed. For this pieces of tubing, the successive lengths purpose the machine is fitted with a being quickly coupled together. In order grooved screw-shaft, feathered to the lower to secure compactness the driving cylin- sleeve gear. This is a double gear, con-| ders are of the oscillating type. The drill necting by its upper teeth with a beveled is a convenient tool, and for many pur- driving gear, and by its lower teeth with | poses will be found to be of great value. the release gear—a frictional gear at the | bottom of the short feed-shaft. At the upper end of the teed-shaft another gear is feathered, connecting with an upper gear on the screw-shaft. This last gear is attached to the feed-nut, in the thread of which runs the screw of the screw-shaft, and, as the gear of the feed shaft has one or more teeth than that of the feed-nut, | the nut makes fewer revolutions in a given time than the screw-shaft, thus producing the differential feed. The frictional gear on the bottom of the feed-shaft combines | . . . . . | with this a frictional feed, making the drill sensitive to the character of the rock through which it is passing by maintain- The severe and TT The specific heat of air at constant pressure being 0.2377, the specific heat of water, which is 1, is theretore 4.1733 times greater under ordinary circumstances, A pound of water losing 1° of heat, or 1 thermal unit, will consequently raise the temperature of 4.17 pounds, or, at ordinary temperatures, say 50 cubic feet of air, 1°. A pound of steam at atmos- pheric pressure, having a temperature of 212° F., in condensing to water at 212° F., yields 965.7 thermal units, which, if util- ized, would raise the temperature of 5 x 965.7 = 48,285 cubic feet of air 1°, or about 690 cubic feet from 0° to 70° F. August 25, 1888. THE IRON AGE. 267 add 3 per cent. to cover the insurance,|1 per cent. and figuring on 10 per cent. | consular charges, &c., and the sum will| above the cost of the plates, or $1674,82, ‘“ , E ~ 419»! be the cost of the plates on ship at Liver-| we find it to be $8.37; adding this to The Energy Mfg. Company, ESIS-AE3e pool. The next ian to take into account | $1539.02 we find the cost of the plates South Fifteenth street, Philadelphia, I “+> | is the ocean freight, which is of course a|insured* to be $1547.39. As mentioned are bringing out a new clamping eae variable factor depending upon the cur-| above the freight rates vary according to securing work on planers, shapers, ‘ rills, | vent rates, and also upon the ship, the| circumstances. but 9/ per ton of 2240 boring machines, &c. The engraving; | .< tramp * steamers charging less than | pounds may be taken as the current charge. which we annex, represents a section of a/ 44, regular Transatlantic liners. At present | The gross weight of the 500 boxes, at 120 planer with the clamps holding ® peece of the freight rates are from 8/6 to 9/| pounds per box, will be 60,000 pounds, work to the table. It will be noticed thas per ton, but within four years they have | or, say, 27 tons, which, at 9/ per ton, cost instead of using wooden pieces and scrap, | been as high as 16/ Having made proper | 243/, or about $60; adding this to the cost to fill under the outer ends of clamps, | allowance for the cost of carriage, there |of the insured plates we get $1607.39 as adjustable clamp blocks are used which remains the duty, which is 1 cent a pound. | the cost of the plates on dock at New have teeth and are bolted together. This This scheme of estimating assumes that | York. Though the plates are now in this prevents their giving, no matter how much | the plates were bought for cash in Eng-| country the purchaser cannot obtain them strain is brought upon them by the clamp land, which would necessarily be the | until he has settled with the custom house. bolts. The blocks — ne seen Pome vase unless the buyer had an established |To avoid the trouble of attending in per- ber of places to advantage, and wi Save | credit abroad. If bought on time interest | son to the payment of duties it is usual to considerable time. They are made in would, of course, have to be added. We|employ a custom house broker who will four sizes. believe, however, that it is the invariable | charge, say, $3.50 irrespective of the value It may be mentioned that Adjustable Clamping Blocks. LL F : , 2 ’ 3 rule in the tin-plate trade for the importer | of the invoice. Cost of Importing Tin Plate. | to pay cash, though the consumer who buys the plates from him in this country Some time ago a correspondent sug- gested to us the advisability of publishing | gets credit. To illustrate by a practical example, let this is a low charge for brokerage, it being | $5 at the other portsofentry. The 14x 20 \IC plates weigh about 108 pounds net | to the box, and as the tariff is 1 cent per in our columns a set of rules, with tables | us assume that a consumer wishes to pur- | pound, the duty on the lot will be $540, and other data, for figuring from the | chase 500 boxes IC 14 x 20 Bessemer steel | or $543.50 with che brokerage, no account English quotations the cost in American | plates, coke finish. At 13/ per box, f.o.b. | being taken of certain minor custom house ADJUSTABLE CLAMPING BLOCKS, MADE PHILADELPHIA, THE ENERGY BY MFG, PA. CO., |fees. Adding this to $1607.39, the cost |of the plates on dock, we find the total j}cost of 500 boxes IC 14 x 20 Bessemer | cokes, delivered on dock in New York, to | be $2150.89, or $4.30 per box. At 13, | per box Liverpool the plates were worth in our currency, say, $3.17, so that the total charge per box of importing was | $1.13, or about 354 per cent. on the quoted | foreign price. We would not have our | readers take the above example as a reliable | guide, for apart from the varying freight, insurance and other charges, there are a |number of expense items which it would be impossible to correctly allow for in a suppositive case, but which must always be met in an actual business transaction. Not to mention the trouble involved, which ought to be entered at a cash valu- ation, there is the general item of interest, | which cannot be definitely specified. Furthermore, there is no account taken of possible delays, or perhaps it would be nearer the truth to say probable delays— and, finally, if the plates are not of a satis- factory quality, the individual buyer has no foreign agents or correspondents through whom he can obtain redress. A | currency of tin plates laid down in this, Liverpool, the cost would be 6500/ or|company whose sole business is the im- «country, allowances being made for all ordinary charges, such as commissions freights, &c. At first sight this appears to be avery simple problem, but a little investigation will soon discover its diffi- culties. Many a large consumer of tin plates, in the hope of saving money, has attempted to import his plates direct, but we do not know of a single instance where the experiment has proved a suc- cess, or, if fortunate enough to obtain his plates at prices a little under the jobbers’ quotations, the troubles, delays and vexa- tions experienced have far more than outweighed the little money gain, and rarely if ever has the consumer been tempted a second time to inxport direct. Notwithstanding the impracticability of the tin-plate consumer buying abroad, it may be of interest to describe, in a general way, the method of figuring the cost of plates laid down, in New York for in- stance. A rough rule for the purpose is to figure the shilling at 25 cents, which is a little in excess of its actual value, the difference (2 to 3 per cent.) covering the foreign charges. Having thus reduced the English quotation in shillings and pence to American currency, the freight, insurance and duty are then added and the sum will, be the approximate cost of the plates delivered here. Or, to be more exact, take the quotation f.o.b. Liverpool, deduct 4 per cent. for cash, then reduce this net price to currency according to the | quotation for sight exchange. To this | £325. With sight exchange at $4.88, this would amount to $1586. Deducting 4 per cent. for cash, we find the net price to be $1522.56. Though the term f.o.b. should mean delivered on the ship without charge, in reality plates so quoted are too often only f.a.s. (free at ship), and it is not un- fair in an example of this kind to allow 1/3 or, say, 30 cents per ton for cartage and handling. In the case considered, this would be $8.10, and adding also the town dues of 9d. or 18 cents per ton, amounting to $4.86, we get the sum of $1535.52. The consular invoice, the charge for which varies somewhat at different ports, must next be taken into account. It should be borne in mind that the consular charge at any given port is the same, whatever the value of the invoice, and while it will be relatively a small item on a large importa- tion the percentage will increase with the lessening value of the invoice. Assuming it to be 14/, or $3.50, the cost of the 500 boxes of plates on board ship at Liverpool | The importer may in- | will be $1539.02. sure his plates against either partial or total loss, and as there is more chance of the plates being damaged on the voyage than totally lost, it goes without saying that the insurance rates against partial loss are the greater. Present rates are from # to 4 of 1 per cent. to insure against total loss, and 3 to } of 1 per cent. to insure against partial loss. We believe it is com- mon practice, however, to insure only portation of tin plates of course ‘“‘ know the ropes” perfectly, but to a novice in the trade these same ‘‘ ropes” will present an inextricable tangle. The example we gave was made as simple as possible, being a single large order for one grade of plates, but where a buyer wanted several kinds of plates, or maybe only a few boxes, the trouble and expense of importing direct would be proportionately increased. I Steel rails weighing 90 pounds per yard have recently been rolled by the Bethle- hem Iron Company, of Bethlehem, Pa., for use on the Reading Railroad. These are said to be the heaviest steel rails ever rolled in this country. It is rumored that both the Reading and Jersey Central roads are going to renew the track on their main lines across New Jersey with steel rails weighing from 89 to 92 pounds per yard. A joint committee of the City Council and the Board of Trade of Akron, Ohio, made a tour of investigation to ascertain what system would best be suitable to pro- vide the city with gas for fuel and light- ing. They looked into the Westinghouse, Loomis and Archer systems, and their re- port, an interesting document, which is | favorable to the Loomis system, has been printed in pamphlet form, by T. William | Harris & Co., of 44 Broadway, this city, against total loss, so taking the rate at 4 of | who are builders of the Loomis plant. ya - ae i ili Sa 5 I ws a ae 4 a ~ em 2 ¥ tS 68 | n on Cast Iron.* BY W. J. BERY, KEEP, D., Cc. E.; MA- AND L. PROF. C.F. i D. VORCE. Aluminium 1s a metal obtained from its oxide, alumina. It white in color and very tenacious, and it alloys readily with iron. Cast iron, ordinarily used, is is iron which contains all the carbon that it | ing was done in a covered plumbago cru-| be made between this series and could absorb during its reduction in the blast furnace. This carbon, when found in chemical union with the iron, is called ‘‘eombined carbon.” In this state it cannot be seen. It is also found mechanically mixed with the iron in the form of graph- | itic carbon, when it becomes visible. Other elements commonly found in cast | iron are phosphorus, sulphur, manganese and silicon. The natural condition of car- | bon in iron is the combined state. The presence of silicon drives a portion of the | carbon into the graphitic state. Sulphur, manganese and phosphorus do not cause the carbon to leave its natural combined state, and if silicon be present these ele- ments either drive it out or overpower it. Carbon is, therefore, a passive element, and is made to change its form by the presence of other elements. It is this change of carbon which indicates, to the eye, the intluence of any element upon the cast iron. Iron and combined carbon, or carbureted iron, is called ‘+ white iron,” and the grain is generally very fine, and . 4 THE IRON AGI fluence of Aluminium |that the small quantities used in the! the base to : | ‘* Mitis”’ process could not be determined if they still remained in the castings. Regarding the physical tests, we should state that iron, with composition, Si.,0.186, P., 0.263, | 8., 0.0307, Mn., 0.092; the other a gray | Swedish iron marked *‘ FL M.” with com- | position Si., 1.249, P., 0.084, S., 0.04, Mn., 0.187. The ferro-aluminium contained Si., 3.86 and Al. 11.42 percent. The melt- | | | | | | | cible, in a coke furnace driven by a blast of 24 ounces. The test bars were 1 foot long, and cast in pairs; one 4 inch square, and its mate ;'y inch thick and 1 inch wide, j We started with 30 pounds of the base in the crucible; at the first heat there were cast four pair of bars from the base alone, which took 5 pounds of metal. After allowing the remaining metal to become solid, we returned the runners of the first cast, and added 4 pounds of the base, and returned the crucible to the furnace. When nearly melted, we added enough ferro-aluminium to bring the percentage of aluminium in the whole to where we wished it, for the second set of bars. We proceeded in like manner through the en- tire series of heats. To arrive at the influ- ence of the aluminium, we made another series of heats, with the same base, with exactly the same conditions, only we did not add the aluminium. The difference between the two series of tests gives the effect of the aluminium. often even, and the metal is very hard. Graphite darkens the fracture until it be- comes a very dark gray, and the grain is coarse and irregular. With increase of graphite the metal becomes soft. We shall confine ourselves in this paper to the influence of aluminium upon cast iron. Let us for a moment review the present knowledge on this subject. It is known that fused wrought iron, or a mixture of cast iron and steel or steel alone, either of which would make castings which would be full of blow-holes, will make solid and homogeneous castings if as small a quan- tity of aluminium as one-tenth of 1 per cent, is added just before pouring. Also that such addition causes the iron to re- main fluid long enough to allow its being We shall consider this subject under the following heads: The solidity of castings and the prevention of ow-holes. Does the aluminium remain in the iron to exert an influence when the iron is remelted ? he effect of aluminium upon the grain or the changing of the carbon from the combined to the graphitic state. The taking away the tendency to chill. The prevention of sand scale, The effect upon hardness, The resistance to a load gradually applied or a dead weight. The resistance to a load suddenly applied or impact. he elasticity. Permanent set. The effect on the shrinkage of the iron. The fluidity of the melted metal. bl we use two bases—one a white | August 23, 1888. 1 slight specular appearance, }and giving a homogenouzg fracture. It in- creases the strength above the base about | 20 per cent. to resist weight, and for im- pact an increase of over 70 per cent. The next heat was a remelt of the first, |with the runners of the first cast put back, and enough white base added |to reduce the aluminium to two-tenths of 1 per cent. when the second cast was made. Our comparisons will now the comparison series of the base alone. Looking at the chart, Fig. 1, we see that } WEIGHT WHITE | IMPACT T rm - 0 44 | 014 nemerts. | ° _ISiTIRIEINIG|TIH|] | _ = ; 4 ° | REMELTS cast into molds. It seems to be the gen- 1. The Solidity of Castings and the Pre- eral opinion that the aluminium does not | eevtion of Blow-Holes.—All of our tests bear remain in the metal, but that it exerts its | upon this subject, but we have made one influence between the time of its introduc- | test, using the white base iron, and one- tion and the time of its departure. This | tenth of 1 per cent. of aluminium, It is seems to be the sum total of the present also impossible to get a solid casting of the information regarding the influence of | White base alone, and its resistance to aluminium upon iron. weight is generally about 175 pounds for We propose in this paper to give the the }-inch square bars, and its resistance results of a series of very carefully con-| to impact is about 100 pounds. We have ducted tests, to further substantiate the | Obtained, however, exceptionally sound statements just made, and to settle the | castings of this base, and we shall use the question as to whether aluminium remains strength of such castings for comparison. in the casting. Also to determine the in- | These sound castings of the white base fluence of this metal upon the physjcal alone resisted a weight of 379 pounds, structure and upon the composition of W ith one-tenth of 1 percent. of aluminium iron. The physical tests that we have|@dded, it resisted 545 pounds, Fig. 1. the effect of the aluminium in this second heat is greater than it was in the first case to which heat the alu ‘nium was added. This is due to the increasing porosity at each heat of the base when melted alone, and to the solidity of the series with aluminium. At the third and subsequent heats the same result is apparent, the re- maining aluminium causing more solid castings, though the continued additions of white iron at each heat, and the conse- quent lessening of aluminium, render the castings less strong at each remelting. Yet the effect of the aluminium is so con- stantly apparent at each melt as to leave no doubt as to the presence even in the sixth remelting. The chart, Fig. 1, which we have prepared, shows these effects, both as to weight and impact. As we proceed with the description of other tests, it will be noticed that we add but a small quantity of aluminium at each heat, and depend upon the additions made at previous heats to bring up the required percentage. The results of the tests show conclusively that the aluminium remains and exerts its influence in subsequent casts as fully as would be expeeted. 3. The Effect of the Aluminium upon the Grain, or the Changing of Carbon from the Combined to the Graphitie State.—Let us say a few words in regard to the way in which, and the reason why, carbon takes « o again of} on the graphitic form. All of the carbon, employed are what are known as ‘ Keep’s | 166 pounds, or about 44 per cent., from | both combined and graphitic, which the tests.” and by them we are enabled to | this small addition, Measuring the resist- | iron is capable of holding when solid must alone was 2 ~ make apparent to the eye the influence of | #ce to impact the white any element upon cast iron. understood that we were to undertake this | about 6 per cent. gain. examination, the Cowles Electric Smelting | peat of slightly finer grain, and the char-| it can hold. When it was | pounds; with aluminium, 254 pounds, or | in the melted iron, The castings ap-| usual way contains all of the carbon that 39 | be dissolved and exist as combined carbon Cast iron made in the Very often cast iron, when and Aluminium Company, of Cleveland, » acter of the crystallization is somewhat dif- | melted, contains more carbon than it can kindly furnished us with what ferro- aluminium we needed, and Prof. C. F. Mabery and L. D. Vorce, of the Case School of Applied Science, of Cleveland, volunteered to undertake the chemical examination of the test bars. The results of these investigations will be appreciated when it is understood that we began with- grains—or, in other words, creased solidity of the casting. change is noticeable in the metal. needed. | ferent, but the secret of the strength lies| hold in combination when at a lower tem- in the closing of the spaces between the| perature; if so, as the iron cools down in the in-|such excess of carbon will separate and No other | rise to the surface, A | melted iron contains more carbon than the graphic representation of this test is not| iron can hold in combination when cold, In any case, when a all of the excess will not be able to reach 2. Does the Aluminium Remain in the| the surface, though it may not be visible out the expectation of the very important results we have obtained, and that the methods for the determination of minute Tron to Exert an Influence When the Iron is| in the casting to the eye. The introduc- Remelted ?—To determine this we made a|tion of other elements into the melted series of six heats from the white base, and | metal may alter its ability to hold the car- added to the first heat one-fourth of 1 per cent. of aluminium. This amount alters the grain very perceptibly, making it whiter and finer, and removing the tendency of quantities of aluminium were so imperfect * Read by W. J. Keep, at the Cleveland Mecet- ing of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, August 17, 1888 bon. Sulphur causes it to let some go, while manganese enables it to hold more carbon in solution. Silicon alsosomewhat diminishes the capacity of the molten August 23, 1888. metal to retain’ carbon while it is in liquid. | able to obtain hard wearing surfaces, and, | THE [RON AGE. Aluminium allows most of the carbon to/| in the same casting, tough and soft central retain its natural combined form until the metal is too thick for the separated carbon to escape, but at the instant of solidifying aluminium causes the iron to drop a por- | tion of its carbon from the combined state. | This liberated carbon takes the graphitic | form, and is imprisoned in the otherwise solid iron, The advantages arising from a change of carbon from the combined to the graph- itic state, at the instant of crystallization, are that all of the carbon thus liberated is imprisoned uniformly throughout the cast- | ing, and is not accumulated in pockets, forming soft and hollow spots, as would be the case if liberated while the casting | was yet fluid. Aluminium more than any known element accomplishes this. It not only changes white iron to gray, but seems at once to change the whole character of the metal. be instantaneous at the instant of crystal- lization,’and ‘for this reason the time taken in cooling has little effect. In fact, when the aluminium obtains full control of the carbon it would seem that the more sud- den the cooling the more the formation of the graphite, and the thin portions of the graphite are therefore as gray as the thicker portions. The powerful and positive in- fluence of aluminium upon the carbon, and therefore upon the grain and color of the iron, is shown by an examination of the series of samples that we present here to-day. Take those made from the white iron base, with almost no silicon present; the Fig. 2. base alone gives a white bar full of blow- holes,. An addition of one-fourth of 1 per cent, aluminium gives us not only a perfect- ly homogeneous and solid casting, but the color is darker, and the grain shows that some of the carbon has taken the graph- itic form. The thin casting shows this even more than the heavier bar, showing that the change occurred suddenly and that time had but little effect. Examining each bar in turn, we see that each similar addition of aluminium produces a corres- | ponding effect until, at the third addi- tion, or with three-fourth of 1 per cent., the casting is gray, with no sign of white, either in the square or in the thin bar. The set of tests with the gray iron base, containing 1} per cent. of silicon, shows that silicon and aluminium work together in the same direction, and that a slight addition of aluminium takes the white out of the casting at once, giving the same grain in a thin as ina thick casting. This effect increases as the aluminium increases, and the indications are that at least up to 4 per cent., the limit of our experiments, the more the aluminium, the softer and grayer the castings. 4. The Taking Away the Tendency to Chill. | —If cast iron be cooled very suddenly, the carbon, which the melted metal holds in combination, will not have time to sepa- rate, and will be retained in the combined state. Such castings are called chilled astings. Chill is caused by molten iron running against a body which rapidly withdraws its heat, causing it to retain its carbon in the combined form. Back from the chill, where this instantaneous cooling could not exert its full effect, a portion of the carbon takes the graphitic form. This property is made use of when it is desir- The drop of carbon seems to | portions, as in car wheels, While this | chilling effect is exceedingly valuable for many purposes, yet, generally speaking, the founder desires exactly the reverse. We have said that aluminium causes the carbon to assume the graphitic form on WHITE BASE 0 4 oe 4% 480 } 60 . - - 4 440 }— Fe —oo . | WEIGHT. 2 ~ o z Ww « e ) ithe transverse breaking weights of ‘two series which we have been consider- 269 softness to the iron. The later the carbon is dropped the smaller will be the atoms of graphite and the closer the grain. Yet this greater subdivision will, for the reason just given, make the iron work more easily. The fineness of the grain of iron affected by aluminium causes such iron to be much more easily cut than iron of coarser grain. The next question to con- sider is that of strength. The power of wrought iron and steel to resist extension | is so great that where such stresses are to | be resisted decarbonized metal should be used. The resistance of any cast iron to crushing is so great that we need not con- sider this. The forces which cast iron should be made to resist, aside from crush- ing, are a dead weight, or a blow applied transversely. We should, therefore, test | cast iron with these forces. 7. The Resistance to a Load Gradually Applied, or a Dead We ight.—It we compare the |ing, number by number, we perceive that Fig. 3. instant of solidifying, and therefore the} sudden abstraction of heat does not im- prison the combined carbon and cause | chill. This effect of aluminium is to give | a uniform grain for thick and thin cast- | ings, and not allow the coldness of the mold to affect the grain. Fig. 2 gives graphically the results of experiments made, 5. The Thickness of Sand Scale.—This | is an important consideration, for the sand must be cleaned from the casting, and the surface must first be cut before the interior can be reached. To prevent the iron from burning the sand into itself and thus form- ing a scale, a plumbago facing is sifted on the surface of the mold, but it is difficult for the facing to lie on the surfaces or to resist the intense heat of the metal. When aluminium in ap iron causes the dropping of the graphite from the mass of the metal, that graphite which is on the surface of | the casting separates and forms a perfect plumbago facing, which opposes the sand and the heat. It will, therefore, be seen | that in castings having sufficient aluminium to cause this separation of graphite, there will be no pe: clinging to the face, and | that the surface will be as soft as the in- | terior of the casting. Every ironworker will appreciate this good effect of alu-| minium. 6. The Effect Hardness.—Hard- | ness in cast irun is caused by the car- | bureted or white iron in masses large | upon WHITE BASE GRAY BASE IMPACT. = be 9 z we a - n Fig. 4. enough to oppose the tool. If the car- bureted iron exists in minute threads stretched around atoms of graphite, a tool will easily cut it and it will not be con- sidered hard. This graphitic carbon, minutely dividing the mass, gives the tools of the workman a chance to cut or break the films of metal, giving what we call | the aluminium has increased the strength | to sustain a constant load. This is a very important effect, and perhaps comes par- | tially from the tenacity and strength of WHITE BASE GRAY BASE z ° KF Oo w “ A w a aluminium itself, but probably more from the uniform grain of the iron. Fig. 3 is a record of the tests. 8. The Resistance to a Load Suddenly Applied, or Impact.—It may be thought that the effect is substantially the same, whether the force be a constant weight or a suddenly applied blow.. We shall at a future time prove that the effects are not the same, and that an iron should be tested by a blow if it is expected to resist im- pact. By a comparison of the graphic representation, Fig. 4, we see that the | capacity to resist impact is increased by the addition of aluminium much more than the capacity to resist a dead weight. It will be seen at a glance that the test bars made with the white bese are benefited far more than those made with the gray base. The reason for this is, that the white base alone made porous castings; at each remelt this porosity increased, due to the continuation of the*heat, running |the strength down to 68 pounds at the fifth heat. The first, and each subsequent addition of aluminium, caused the castings to be perfectly sound, and the infinitessi- mal atoms of graphite deposited through- out the metal removed the rigidity and brittleness of the initial metal. The gray iron base contained enough silicon to ac- complish all this, and the only effect on strength that the action of the aluminium on carbon could have would be to increase . the fineness of the grain, unless the tough- ness of the aluminium itself could gtve strength to the casting, though the alu- minium no doubt removed any slight blow- holes that existed in the initial gray metal. This leads us to notice that each addition of aluminium increases the strength over that of the initial metal. We must expect | that after we have added enough alumin- ium to cause a solid casting, and to re- move the brittleness that the dividing up of the mass by the atoms of graphite ac- complishes, any further additions of alu- minium, and consequent increase of graph- ite, which has no strength of itseif, must weaken the casting. 9. The Elasticity.—The compactness and closeness of the grain of cast iron when aluminium was the agent by which the 270 om ee ‘a : | graphite was precipitated and the fine at- tenuation of the veins of carbureted iron cause the metal to be very elastic, and, as we have seen, not so brittle | as without aluminium. Fig. 5 illustrates this. bai 10. Permanent Set.—This is caused by | the compression of the graphite within the | framworke of carbureted iron. When this compression of graphitic carbon is pro- duced by transverse bending the framework of the metal also takes on a permanent form, which cannot be altered except by a greater force than was before applied. The fine- ness and compactness of iron alloyed with aluminium gives less permanent set than iron equally as soft when such softness is produced by silicon. 11. The Effect on the Shrinkage of the Iron. —The more suddenly and completely the carbon is changed from combined to graph- itic. at the instant of crystallization, the more space will the casting occupy. When the casting is cold it will therefore have contracted less than if more carbon had remained combined. White iron, having most of its carbon in the combined state, shrinks from } to 4 inch in each foot. Gray iron sometimes shrinks as little WHITE BASE GRAY BASE x <= a w x =< > Oo Fig. 6. jy inch to each lnear foot. As the combined is the natural state for the carbon, we may say that this maximum shrinkage is the natural shrinkage for cast iron having its carbon combined. We can therefore say that aluminium takes out or reduces shrinkage when a sufficient quan- tity is added. This is a very great ad- vantage, as shrinkage requires great skill in the preparation of patterns to pre- vent warping and cracking, and violent internal strains within the castings. The lessening of shrinkage avoids these evils, and is therefore a great gain. Fig. 6, the shrinkage chart, furnishes the most conclusive proof of our explanation of the yay in which shrinkage is lessened. With both the white and the gray bases, during the first two additions, the shrinkage of the square bar is slightly increased. The influence ot the aluminium thus far his been in the direction of elimination of blow-holes, and causing an even distribu- tion of the dark and light grains. At the third addition, however, when the amount reached three-quarters of 1 per cent., the effect was appreciably felt upon the carbon, as seen by the color, and as we should ex- pect, from the deposition of this large bulk of graphite; the casting does not shrink as much, and each addition of aluminium in- creasing this bulk of graphite decreases the shrinkage. The effect upon the grain and color of the thin bars of the series is very remarkable, showing that the alu- minium has changed enough carbon to as graphite to produce a dark even grained | casting. The effect upon the shrinkage of these thin bars (see Fig. 7), is as we should expect, and is more marked even than in the square bars. The shrinkage in the thin bars of the white series shows a constant decrease as the aluminium in- creases, but in the series for comparison, the shrinkage dropped still more rapidly. If a new crucible was used in commencing this comparison series, enough silicon might have been absorbed to produce this effect. This leads us to remark that on account of the variations of conditions in any series of tests, that cannot be foreseen, we must avoid drawing any but general THE IRON - AGE. conclusions, and these should be based upon a large number of experiments. 12. The Fluidity of the Melted Metal.— Our tests of fluidity (see Fig. 8) are cor- rect as far as each individual heat is con- /cerned, but variation may be due to the heat of the metal of that particular cast when poured. Viewed in a general way, the indications are that with the white base, with almost no silicon, the aluminium |has increased the fluidity; but judging | WHITE BASE GRAY BASE a « < a z x on Fig. 7. from the series with the gray base, we would say that, combined with silicon, aluminium reduced the fluidity. Our re- marks in connection with shrinkage show that a sharp casting is produced by the in- stantaneous dropping of graphite when crystallization takes place, and that if the iron is fluid enough to fill the mold, any extra fluidity causes the iron in shrinking to draw away from the mold. Again, the percentage of aluminium necessary to bring about these desirable results will be too small to have much effect upon the fluidity of the metal. The fact of the iron giving sharper and more perfect castings on account of the swell of the casting, caused by the deposition of graphite at the instant of solidification might cause the iron to be pronounced more fluid, 1f judged by the appearance of the castings. No doubt the presence of varying quanti- ties of manganese, sulphur, phosphorus and silicon in the cast iron used would modify the influence of aluminium, and until this is understood it may require considerable experiment to determine the amount of aluminium required or how it shall be introduced. This hurried presentation of the re- markable effects of aluminium upon cast iron will give an idea of the great benefit which is now promised to the iron founder by the rapidly falling price of aluminium as Cheapened by the electric furnace. Fol- lowing the publication of this part of the subject we shall soon present the results WHITE BASE GRAY BASE (01% 4194) 11 0 4/%]>4)1/| 2/3] a 4 4 =H i_——-= + = = > - a 2 4 w of the laboratory work of Prof. Mabery and Mr. Vorce, which will throw still more light upon this interesting subject. We find in an article from an unknown | source the following values for the traction | coefficient on different roads under ordi- nary average conditions: ‘‘ Railroads in good condition, the axles well lubricated, 4 pounds per ton of load; upon railroads under ordinary, but not very good, condi- tion, 8; upon a very smooth pavement, 12; on ordinary street pavements in good con- dition, 20; on street pavements and turn- | pikes, 30; on turnpikes new laid with |coarse gravel and broken stone, 50; on |common roads in bad condition, 150; on ‘entirely loose ground or sand, 560.” August 23, 1888, The Perils of Steam Navigation. Another ocean horror emphasizes the fact already established that our best built steamships have a vulnerable part which all the devices yet contrived fail to remedy, The Danish steamer Geiser, from New for Copenhagen, with 149 souls on board, while near Sable Island on the 14th inst., was struck on the starboard side amid- ships with terrific force by the steamer Thingvalla, of the same line. The blow was received between the coal bunkers and the engine-room. In about five minutes the ill-starred ship, which had been cut nearly in twain, was engulfed in the sea, taking down 118 persons, only 14 of the passengers and 17 of the crew surviving. The Thingvalla’s bows were carried away completely as far back as the collision bulkhead, which yielded perceptibiy to the tremendous pressure of the sea, but no time was lost in rendering it more secure, thus saving the ship from the fate of her consort. The Cunard steamer Oregon, it will be remembered, speedily went to the bottom, although struck only by a collier. It is always so when the engine compart- ment fills with water, on account of the disproportion of the flooded space as re- lated to other divisions of the ship. Ves- sels built on the cellular plan of construc- tion have been pronounced “ unsinkable,” but it remains to be demonstrated that they are really so when subjected to the severest test. The loss of the Geiser will be the sub- ject of official investigation before the Danish Admiralty Court. The material facts, however, are obvious to the ordinary reader of the news, and the conclusion seems inevitable, as expressed by high au- thority on the New York Maritime Ex- change, that when the critical moment came, and collision seemed imminent, ‘‘either of the officers in command lost his head, or his orders were misunderstood at the helm.” So long as speed is the ruling ambition and the chief reliance for commercial success in Atlantic Steam Navigation, any proposition to protect the engine compartment by means of heavy lating would be promptly rejected, since it would neutralize this indispensable quality by adding tonnage which wopld be superfluous except in extreme emergen- cies such as might never occur. Moreover, it is hardly supposable that any device of this character would endure the impact of a laden steamer like the Thingvalla, even if engines were ‘‘slowed down.” Ocean travelers of to-day deliberately elect to take the fastest steamer, assuming the chances of collision or any other possi- ble form of disaster. And this they are en- couraged to do by the small ratio of fatal- ities on the ocean highway compared with those which overtake travelers by rail or other modes of conveyance. The lamentable fate of the Geiser seems to enforce at least one obvious truth— namely, that safety at sea depends on skillful navigation, the vigilant use of signals and the sounding lead, rather than on further improved mechanical appliances of any kind whatever. The resources of human ingenuity in this direction seem to be well-nigh exhausted. The subject of ‘*ocean steam losses,” however, has hardly received the attention which the safety of travelers demands. The strict observance of certain limits in defining the course of steamers on their outward and homeward trips respectively would do much to lessen the perils of ocean travel. A Mexican letter says, there is much more attention given to agriculture in that country, and that large importations of American agricultural machinery are being made, as it is found that the Americans make lighter and stronger machinery than the English. August 23, 1888, THE IRON AGE. 271 MANUFACTURE OF ALUMINIUM. THE CASTNER PROCESS IN OPERATION, The English technical newspapers con- tain accounts of a visit made lately by a party of scientists to the new works of the Aluminium Company, Limited, at Old- ham, where new works have been built for the production of aluminium by the process of H. Y. Castner, a New York chemist. The works are in close proximity to the Oldbury Station of the Great West- ern Railway, and contiguous to Messrs. Chance Brothers’ alkali works, from which | an important part of the raw materials employed in the manufacturc—namely, caustic soda and hydrochloric acid, are derived. The processes included in the manufacture are the production of sodium by Castner’s method, of the double chloride of sodium and aluminium, and the reduc- tion of aluminium trom the latter salt by the action of sodium. The first of these, which is in many ways the most interest- ing of the different operations, is effected by the action of a very intimate mixture of carbon and iron obtained by coking a mixture of pitch and finely divided iron upon melted caustic soda at a strong red heat. The operation is performed in large cast-steel crucibles, attached to the head of a hydraulic plunger, which are pressed against a fixed arc and delivery pipe, the whole arrangement forming a kind of still which is heated by gas from a Wilson producer running with heated air. The active reducing agent is carbon, the pur- pose of the iron being merely to ballast the carbon and prevent it floating to the surface of the molten alkali. About one- third of the latter is reduced, and distils over into a tubular receiver connected with a cylindrical pot filled with naphtha, which receives the condensed melted sodium. The remainder of the alkali be- comes carbonized, and the rece